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THEORY  AND  ART 


PENMANSHIP 

A 

MANUAL  FOR  TEACHERS, 


CONTAINING  A  FULL  STATEMENT  OF 


PAYSON,  DUNTON,  AND  SCEIBNER’S 
CELEBRATED  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

INCLUDING  CLASS-DRILL,  WRITING  IN  CONCERT,  CRITICISM 
AND  CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS,  HINTS  TOWARDS 
AWAKENING  INTEREST,  ETC. 

TOGETHER  WITH 

A  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  OF  SCRIPT  LETTERS, 

AS  DEVELOPED  IN  THEIR  SERIES  OF  WRITING-BOOKS. 


FIFTH  EDITION. 


BOSTON: 

WOOLWORTH,  AINSWORTH  &  CO. 

NEW  YORK:  A.  S.  BARNES  &  CO. 

1869. 


•  • 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  lbffij,  by 
CROSBY  AND  NICHOLS, 
la  the  Clerk’s  Office  »f  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE 


*v 


TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  first  edition  having  been  exhausted,  an  op¬ 
portunity  is  afforded  us  of  adding  one  or  two  par¬ 
ticulars.  One  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  in  the 
city  of  New  York  has  called  our  attention  to  the 
matter  of  seats.  In  some  schools  they  are  placed 
on  the  left  of  the  pupil’s  side  of  the  desk.  This 
renders  them  very  inconvenient  when  the  right 
side  of  the  body  to  the  desk  is  preferred ;  the  only 
remedy  seems  to  be  to  change  them.  If  the  seats 
are  placed  exactly  in  the  middle  of  each  pupil’s 
desk,  they  will  be  found  convenient  for  any  position 
of  the  body  which  may  be  selected.  It  would  fur¬ 
ther  be  a  great  boon,  if  some  one  would  invent  a 
seat  the  height  of  which  should  be  adjustable  by 
some  simple  mechanism.  We  cannot  insure  equal 
ity  ol  corporeal  longitude  with  mental  attainments, 
therefore  seats  which  could  be  raised  or  lowered  at 
pleasure  would  be  a  great  convenience  generally  ; 
for  the  writing-lesson  they  would  be  invaluable. 

As  to  the  “  false  cover,”  we  omitted  to  state,  that 
it  is  desirable  to  place  the  pages  under  it,  when  the 
Oook  is  folded  at  the  back,  to  bring  the  right  page 


11 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


nearer  the  front  of  the  desk.  The  page  which 
would  otherwise  be  placed  on  the  desk  is  thus  kept 
clean. 

A  valuable  drill  for  the  Capitals  has  been  added 
on  page  148.  On  page  108  will  be  found  fuller 
directions  for  counting. 

We  desire  once  more  to  urge  the  immense  impor¬ 
tance  of  constant  self-criticism  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils,  and  immediate  effort  to  correct  the  errors 
discovered.  This  alone  will  insure  improvement. 
Only  let  this  habit  be  formed,  and  the  teacher’s  work 
may  be  considered  ended.  We  desire  also  to  direct 
attention  to  the  Lessons  in  Part  II.  They  are  very 
important  for  a  thorough  comprehension  of  our 
method. 

We  have  just  made  a  very  valuable  addition  to 
our  system.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  Chirographic 
Tablets,  which  are  fac-similes  of  the  Principles  and 
Letters,  thoroughly  analyzed,  as  written  of  large 
size  on  the  blackboard,  containing  besides  useful 
Exercises  for  drill  on  the  Capitals.  By  this  means, 
the  Teacher  will  be  enabled  to  place  perfect  models 
before  the  whole  class. 

In  conclusion,  we  cannot  but  express  the  hope, 
that,  seeking  thus  in  every  respect  to  meet  th« 
wants  of  teachers  from  the  resources  of  our  com¬ 
bined  experience,  covering  a  period  of  more  thaa 
thirty  years ,  we  shall  continue  to  maintain  the  un 
paralleled  popularity  of  our  system,  and  to  meriv 
the  continued  expression  of  approval  contained  ii* 
such  testimonials  as  these.  “  My  pupils  now  wei- 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


ill 


come  the  hour  for  writing,  and  it  is  no  longer  a 
weary  exercise.  I  can  most  heartily  recommend 
the  system  and  series  of  books.”  Again  :  “  I  think 
I  can  truly  state  that  this  system  is  the  most  philo¬ 
sophic  ever  used  in  my  school  in  the  past  twenty-  ^ 
five  years.”  From  the  Principal  of  one  of  the 
largest  public  schools  in  New  York  city:  “Avery 
remarkable  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the 
writing  of  every  individual  of  the  class.”  From  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  Brooklyn  : 

“  To  me,  whose  school-boy  days  have  long  since 
passed  away,  the  specimens  on  exhibition  this  day 
show  an  improvement  almost  too  wonderful  for 
belief,  and  testify,  in  stronger  language  than  I  can 
use,  in  favor  of  this  system  and  method  of  instruc¬ 
tion.”  From  the  City  Superintendent  of  Brooklyn  : 

“  This  system  is  practised  in  several  of  the  schools 
with  astonishing  results.  I  have  never  seen  finer 
specimens  of  improvement  in  the  best  writing  acad¬ 
emies  or  private  seminaries.” 


TABLE  OE  CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

Aim  of  the  Manual,  11.  —  It  has  Two  Parts,  Scope  of  each,  11.  —  Criti* 
cism  of  Style  deprecated,  12.  —  Would  be  useful  as  a  Class-Book, 
13.  —  Description  of  our  Series  of  Copy-Books,  14. 


PART  I. 

INSTRUCTION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

'GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

What  may  reasonably  be  expected  from  the  School  Course  of  Writing? 
19.  —  1.  What  Writing  is,  19.  —  2.  The  Agents  who  produce  it,  20.  — 
3.  Their  State  of  Cultivation  at  Commencement,  20.  —  4.  The  Time 
devoted  to  it,  20.  —  Conclusion  drawn,  21.  —  Which  should  be  taught 
first,  Knowledge  of  Form,  or  Command  of  the  Pen?  21.  —  Both  togeth¬ 
er,  21.  —  How  this  is  to  be  managed,  21.  —  Can  a  bad  Writer  teach 
Penmanship  successfully  ?  23.  —  He  can  by  Aid  of  this  Manual,  23. 


CHAPTER  II. 

REQUISITES. 

\ 

I.  Good  Copies,  25.  —  Good  Copies  should  be  Accurate,  25.  —  Objec¬ 
tion  to  inaccurate  ones,  26.  —  Parallel  from  Drawing,  26.  —  In  Ele¬ 
mentary  Numbers  Forms  should  be  Simple,  27.  —  Should  form  a  Pro- 


vi 


CONTENTS. 


gressive  System,  27.  —  2.  Good  Teaching,  28.  —  Makes  Pupils  see 
29.  —  Instructs  in  Form  and  Execution,  29.  —  Annoyance  from  bad 
Copies,  29.  —  3.  Good  Paper,  30.  —  Objection  to  Cost,  30.  —  Cheat¬ 
ing,  30.  —  Character  of  good  Paper,  30.  —  Plea  on  its  Behalf,  31.  — 
4.  Good  Pens,  31.  —  Their  Qualities,  31.  —  To  clean  a  new  Pen,  32. 
—  5.  Good  Ink,  32.  —  Its  Qualities,  32.  —  To  keep  Ink  in  Order,  32.  — 
How  to  take  Ink  in  the  Pen,  33.  —  6.  Pen- Wipers,  33.  —  Hair,  33.  — 
Clothes,  33.  —  Special,  33.  —  7.  Blotters,  34.  —  Their  Use,  34. — 
8.  Covers,  35.  —  How  to  fold,  35.  —  0.  Oblique  Lines,  36.  —  Their 
Use,  36. 

CHAPTER  III. 

ON  SCRIPT  AND  PRINT. 

Comparison  of  Script  and  Print,  37.  —  Forms  peculiar  to  Print,  37.  — 
Italics,  37.  —  Change  of  Form  in,  37.  —  Characteristics  of  Print  and 
Script,  37.  —  On  what  Legibility  and  Facility  of  Execution  respec¬ 
tively  depend,  37.  —  Law  of  Change,  38.  —  Its  Operation  traced,  38.  — 
Control  of-  Taste,  38.  —  Main  Lines  and  Adjuncts,  39.  —  The  Angles 
adopted  for  Slope,  39.  —  Apparent  Exceptions  explained,  39.  —  Origin 
of  the  present  Form  of  s,  40.  —  Of  r,  40. 


CHAPTER  IY. 

LINES  AND  ANGLES. 


Want  of  Primary  Education,  42.  —  Lines  and  Angles  to  be  taught  first, 

42.  —  Definition  of  a  Line,  42.  —  Straight  Line,  42.  —  Curve,  42. — 
Crooked,  42.  —  Definition  of  an  Oval,  43.  —  “Elliptical”  explained, 

43.  —  How  to  draw  an  Ellipse,  43.  —  An  Angle,  how  formed,  43.  — 
Definition  of,  44.  —  Measurement  of,  44.  —  Definition  of  a  Perpendicu¬ 
lar  Line,  44.  —  When  Vertical,  44.  —  Parallels,  44.  —  Horizontal  Line, 

44.  —  Oblique  Line,  44.  —  Angles  to  be  practised,  45. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

POSITION,  RESTS,  AND  MOVEMENTS. 

Position  of  Body  depends  on  the  Use  to  be  made  of  the  Arm,  46.  — ■ 
Three  distinct  Movements,  46.  —  How  to  decide  which  is  best,  47.  — 


CONTENTS.  vii 

Conditions  imposed  by  the  Work  to  be  done,  47.  —  1.  Long  Continu¬ 
ance,  47.  —  2.  Freedom  of  Style,  47.-3.  Line  of  Writing,  Straight  • 
and  Horizontal,  47.  —  4.  Uniformity  of  Slope,  &c.,  47.  —  6.  Rapidity, 
47.  —  6.  Boldness,  48.  —  How  to  fulfil  these  Conditions,  48.  —  The 
Rolling  Rest,  48.  —  The  Sliding  Rest,  49.  —  Summary  of  Natural  Po¬ 
sitions  and  Rests  thus  far  obtained,  49.  —  Movements,  49.  —  The  Slid¬ 
ing,  49.  —  The  Comital,  60.  —  The  Lateral,  60.  —  The  Muscular,  60.  — 
The  Medial,  60.  —  Position  of  the  Body,  61.  —  Sitting  with  Right  Side 
to  the  Desk,  61.  —  Advantages,  61.  —  Objection,  62.  —  With  Front  to 
the  Desk,  62.  —  Objections,  62.  —  Advantages,  62.  —  Pen-holding,  62. 
—  Movements  of  Pen-fingers,  53.  —  Position  of  the  Pen  on  the  Paper, 
64.  —  To  discover  if  Pen  is  grasped,  64.  —  Summary  of  Positions, 
Rests,  and  Movements,  65.  —  Which  Movements  taught  first,  66.  — 
Shades,  66. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 

Words,  how  represented  in  Writing,  57.  —  Letters  can  be  analyzed,  67. 
—  And  Principles,  67.  —  This  Analysis  has  two  Stages,  67.  —  Exam¬ 
ples,  67.  —  How  name  the  Results?  68.  —  Propriety  of  the  Terms  Ele¬ 
ments  and  Principles,  68.  —  General  Rule,  58.  —  Can  they  be  referred 
to  Standard  Forms,  68.  —  The  Straight  Line,  69.  —  Analysis  of  the 
Oval,  69.  —  The  Ideal  Standard,  69.  —  Modifications,  69.  —  The  Ovai 
Turn,  69.  —  The  Angular  Turn,  60.  —  Summary  of  the  Elements, 

60.  —  Analysis  of  the  Principles,  60.  —  Principle  1,  60.  —  P.  2, 

61.  —  P.  8,  61.  —  P.  4,  61.  —  P.  6,  62.  —  P.  6,  62. 

• 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  SCALE  OF  LENGTHS. 

Explanation  of  the  Scale  of  Lengths,  63.  —  Rule  for  the  Small  Letters, 
63.  —  For  Capitals,  64.  —  Measurements  made  vertically,  64. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


The  Two  Grammatical  Divisions  of  Letters,  65.  —  Small  Letters  ana¬ 
lyzed  first,  65. 


viii 


CONTENTS. 


Section  I.  —  Analysis  of  the  Small  Letters. 

General  Rules,  65.  —  The  Small  Letters  analyzed  in  the  Order  of 
their  Introduction,  66.  —  Analysis  of  the  Numerals,  74. 

Section  II.  —  Analysis  of  the  Capitals. 

The  Principles  of  the  Capitals,  76.  —  General  Rules,  78.  —  Thb 
Capitals  analyzed  in  the  Order  of  their  Introduction,  79. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

classification  of  letters. 

Introductory  Remarks,  87.  —  Classes  of  Small  Letters,  87.  —  Charac¬ 
teristics,  88.  —  Order  of  Introduction,  88.  —  Occurrence  of  Princi¬ 
ples  and  Elements,  89.  —  Classification  of  Capitals,  90.  —  Forms,  why 
selected,  90.  —  Occurrence  of  Principles,  91. 

CHAPTER  X. 

COMBINATION  of  letters. 

Definition,  93.  —  Requirements  of  Taste,  93.  —  On  what  Spacing  de¬ 
pends,  93.  —  Commencement  and  Terminations  of  Letters,  98.  — 
Rules,  94. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 

Importance  of,  96.  — Inattention  of  Children,  96. —  Objection  to  Count¬ 
ing  answered,  96.  —  Example  of  Military  Drill,  97.  —  The  Argument 
against  is  an  Argument  in  Favor,  98.  —  Counting  good  for  all,  98.  — 
It  saves  Time,  99.  —  Testimony  of  Experience,  99.  —  Commencing  and 
Closing,  99.  —  Time  wasted  in,  100.  —  Directions  for,  100. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

Schedule  of  Topics,  104.  —  Two  Things  necessary  to  be  known,  10& 
—  1.  The  End  to  be  aimed  at,  105.  —  2.  The  Successive  Steps,  105.  — 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


Two  Branches  of  Latter,  105.  —  1.  In  teaching  Form,  106.  —  Knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  System  used  required,  106.  —  Examination  of  our  System, 
106.  —  Elements,  why  not  Exercises  on,  106. —  Groups  of  Principles 
and  Letters,  107.  —  Capitals,  on  what  Ground  Selection  made,  107.  — 
Objection  answered,  108.  —  Presumption  failing,  ridiculous,  108.  — 
Current  Capitals  in  advanced  Books,  108.  —  Columns  and  Sentences, 
109.  —  Order  of  teaching  Form,  its  Successive  Steps,  109.  —  2.  Steps 
in  teaching  Movement,  110.  —  Remarks  on  these  Steps  in  Teaching, 
111.  —  Selection  of  Books  for  Course,  112.  —  On  teaching  a  Fresh  Let¬ 
ter,  112. — Neglect  of  Elementary  Books  a  fruitful  Source  of  Bad 
Writing,  113. —  How  to  interest  a  Class,  113.  —  Importance  of  Prac¬ 
tice  on  the  Groups  of  Letters,  114.  —  Remarks  on  Teaching  Capitals, 
114.  —  On  Teaching  Words,  114.  —  Criticism,  114.  —  Care  of  Books, 
116.  —  Accidents  can  be  avoided,  116. — Assurance  of  Success,  116. 


PART  II. 

LESSONS. 


L  On  Lines  and  Angles.  ......  119 

II.  On  Movements  .........  126 

HI.  On  Elements  and  Principles  ......  130 

IV.  On  the  First  Copt . 137 

V.  On  the  Small  Letters . 141 

The  Lesson,  143.—  Schedule  of  Topics,  146.  —  Speci¬ 
mens  of  Primary  and  Secondary  Analysis,  146. 

VL  On  a  Capital . 149 


Schedule  of  Topics,  149.  —  Points  requiring  special 
Attention,  149.  —  The  Lesson,  149. 


Plate  I. 

Plates  II.  and  III. 


M 

<4 


* 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  this  little  book  we  have  aimed  to  supply  a  want  that 
has  long  been  felt.  There  have  been  many  publications 
on  the  same  subject,  but  they  have  been  too  abstract  and 
theoretical.  Our  aim  has  been  to  state  the  results  of  our 
long  and  combined  experience  in  such  a  form  as  should 
place  the  general  teacher,  who  pleases  to  study  them,  in 
the  position,  so  far  as  knowledge  is  concerned,  of  one  who 
has  made  instruction  in  penmanship  his  specialty. 

From  this  aim  certain  peculiarities  have  resulted,  which 
we  state  in  order  to  avoid  misapprehension.  The  book 
will  be  found  to  consist  of  two  parts.  The  first  contains 
direct  instruction  to  the  teacher.  In  it  we  have  sought 
to  give  such  information  as  should  furnish  him  with  mat¬ 
ter  to  bring  before  his  class,  directions  as  to  the  best 
method  of  teaching,  the  order  in  which  the  course  should 
proceed,  and  cautions  as  to  those  general  faults  which  will 
tend  to  make  his  labors  futile.  In  doing  this,  we  have 
endeavored  rather  to  put  it  in  such  a  shape  as  shall  be  con¬ 
venient  for  presentation  directly  to  the  class,  than  in  that 


INTRODUCTION. 


sii 

which  is  due  to  the  acquirements  and  mental  culture  of' 
the  teacher.  In  a  word,  we  have  tried  to  put  it  in  teach 
ing  shape.  It  is  instruction  for  a  class  with  their  imma¬ 
ture  minds,  instead  of  that  proper  for  the  teacher  with 
his  mature  mind,  but  which,  given  in  that  form,  he  would 
have  to  think  into  the  teaching  shape  for  himself.  Hence 
has  arisen  the  occurrence  of  occasional  repetitions,  because 
we  wished  to  make  the  different  chapters  —  as  so  many 
separate  divisions  of  the  subject,  which  were  to  be  brought 
before  a  class  at  intervals  —  complete  in  themselves. 

The  second  part  consists  of  lessons  before  a  class.  It 
presents  specimens  of  our  method  of  teaching  each  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  subject.  They  are  intended  as 
models  of  systematized  and  thorough  instruction. 

We  must  apologize  for  any  dogmatism  which  may  ap¬ 
pear  in  our  pages.  May  it  be  excused  in  consideration 
of  our  earnestness,  and  in  the  recollection  that  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  our  recommendations  depends  solely  on  the  reader’s 
option.  From  unavoidable  circumstances,  our  time  for  the 
preparation  of  this  Manual  has  been  limited.  We  have 
not  been  able,  therefore,  to  give  that  attention  to  the  graces 
of  style  which  the  culture  of  those  to  whom  it  is  addressed 
rightfully  demanded.  In  this  respect  we  deprecate  criti¬ 
cism,  while  to  its  ordeal  we  cheerfully  submit  the  matter 
of  our  unpretending  labors.  Many  very  interesting  topics 
have  been  passed  by :  we  have  paused  to  write  no  eulogies 
of  this  noble  art;  we  have  entered  into  no  controversies 
with  rivals,  uninteresting  to  the  reader  and  unprofitable 


INTRODUCTION. 


•  •• 
Xlll 

to  ourselves  ;  we  have  sought  simply  to  make  a  plain,  prac¬ 
tical  book  We  only  ask  that  what  we  have  suggested 
may  be  submitted  to  the  test  of  experiment,  and  unless 
the  material  operated  on  be  of  far  more  stubborn  kind 
than  any  we  have  ever  encountered,  we  are  satisfied  to 
abide  the  result. 

We  have  subjoined  schedules  of  topics  and  summaries 
wherever  we  thought  it  would  be  convenient,  and  illustra^ 
tive  plates  will  be  found  pp.  56,  64.  We  would  throw 
out  the  idea  that  it  might  be  advantageous  to  make  this 
little  Manual  a  class-book.  It  is  especially  well  adapted 
to  what  is  termed  the  sub-lecture  method. 

The  Table  of  Contents  will,  we  trust,  render  reference 
to  any  point  desired  easy. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  convenient  place  for  the  de¬ 
scription  of  our  Series  of  Copy-Books,  to  which  this  Course 
of  Instruction  is  more  particularly  adapted.  At  its  close 
we  give  the  numbers  of  the  books,  in  the  order  best  cal¬ 
culated  to  promote  the  progress  of  the  two  divisions,  boys 
and  girls. 

Of  our  Series,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  add,  that  since 
its  first  publication,  as  the  pioneer  in  printing  lithographed 
copies  on  dry  paper,  a  process  we  have  carried  to  its  pres¬ 
ent  perfection  at  a  very  heavy  expense,  it  has  been  sub¬ 
jected  to  numerous  revisions,  embodying  the  results  of 
the  combined  experience  of  its  authors,  the  suggestions 
of  practical  teachers,  and  the  conclusions  of  scientific 
thought,  together  with  such  modifications  as  became  ne- 


XIV 


INTRODUCTION. 


cessary  from  the  gradual  advance  in  public  taste.  Wa 
trust  that  we  shall  not  be  deemed  presumptuous,  or  pass¬ 
ing  the  bounds  of  a  becoming  modes^  it  claiming  that 
our  system  is  a  living  growth.  To  say  this  is  but  an 
act  of  justice  to  the  many  thousands  who  have  perfected 
or  are  now  acquiring  their  penmanship  from  its  pages. 
Still  at  its  root,  however,  lies,  as  its  p/inciple  of  life,  that 
determined  preservation  of  simple  forms  in  the  elementary 
numbers  which  drew  from  that  celebrated  educator,  the 
Hon.  Horace  Mann,  the  flattering  approval :  “  This  is  the 
first  common-sense  system  I  have  ever  seen.” 


DESCRIPTION  OF  OUR  SERIES. 

Book  1.  Primary.  Coarse  Hand.  First  four  Prin¬ 
ciples.  Short  letters,  separate.  To  be  written  by  the 
Finger  Movement. 

Book  2.  First  four  Principles.  Groups  of  similar 
Principles  and  Letters,  and  of  selected  Letters.  For 
Fore-arm  and  Finger  Movements. 

Book  3.  All  the  Principles.  All  the  Letters,  both 
Small  and  Capitals.  Easy  words  beginning  with  Capi¬ 
tals.  The  ten  numerals. 

Book  4.  Review  of  No.  3.  The  same  Capitals  three 
times  in  combination  with  words,  five  on  a  page. 

Book  5.  Longer  words  with  Capitals,  four  on  a  page. 
Some  current  forms  of  Capitals  are  introduced. 

Book  6.  Sentences,  mostly  Proverbs.  Condensed 
Style. 


INTRODUCTION. 


XV 


Book  7.  Mercantile  Forms.  Current  Business  Hand. 

Book  8.  Ladies’  Book,  fine  hand,  four  words  on  a 
page. 

Book  9.  Ladies’  Book,  fine  hand,  sentences. 

Book  10.  Sentences,  very  bold  hand. 

Book  11.  Sentences.  Hand  same  size  as  No.  5. 
Numerous  Capitals.  Style  free. 

Book  12.  A  collection  of  the  handsomest  current 
Capitals,  with  words. 

Course  for  Boys,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  10,  11,  12,  7. 

Course  for  Girls,  1,  2,  3,  4,  8,  9. 

We  now  commit  our  little  venture  to  the  chances  of 
the  voyage.  Its  mission  is  one  of  good-will.  Whether 
welcomed  to  friendly  harbors  or  rudely  handled  in  its 
onward  course,  its  motive-power  will  ever  be  the  same, 
a  sincere  desire  to  aid  our  fellow-teachers  in  one  depart¬ 
ment  of  their  arduous  and  toilsome  work. 


PART  I 


INSTRUCTION, 


PART  I. 


‘INSTRUCTION. 
CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

What  may  reasonably  be  expected  from  the  school  course 
of  writing  ? 

This  is  a  very  important  question  for  superintendents, 
teachers,  parents,  and  pupils.  To  arrive  at  a  fair  answer, 
we  must  consider  the  writing  itself,  the  agents  who  are  to 
produce  it,  their  state  of  cultivation  when  they  commence, 
the  time  devoted  to  it  periodically,  and  the  length  of  time 
through  which  the  course  extends. 

First,  then,  as  to  the  writing  itself.  What  is  it?  It 
consists  of  a  varieiy  of  complex  forms  from  sixty  to  sev¬ 
enty  in  number ;  for,  while  there  are  fifty-two  letters,  some 
variations  arise  from  the  necessities  of  combination.  These 
forms  are  small  and  delicate,  are  to  be  written  with  the 
same  slope,  of  unvarying  size,  on  a  straight  line,  by  means 
of  two  sharp  points,  the  extremities  of  springs,  which  are 
guided  by  the  hand  and  fingers  holding  a  slender  stick  to 
which  the  pen  is  attached ;  these  points  are  filled  with  a 
black  fluid,  which  leaves  a  permanent  trace  wherever  the 
points  move  on  the  paper,  and  they  are  to  describe  lines  of 
two  kinds,  light  as  touch  can  make  them,  or  shaded  by  mod¬ 
erate  and  nicely  graduated  pressure.  The  letters  are  re¬ 
quired  to  be  handsomely  formed,  free  and  bold,  legible,  and 


20 


INSTRUCTION. 


•written  with  rapidity.  Here  is  evidently  a  tolerably  diffi« 
cult  task  to  be  performed.  From  these  considerations  it 
appears,  that,  in  order  to  write  well,  two  things  are  ne¬ 
cessary,  knowledge  of  form,  and  command  of  the  pen,  or 
facility  of  execution. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  agents.  Suppose  a  class  assem 
bled  to  take  tneir  first  lesson  in  penmanship.  They  are 
usually,  we  suppose,  about  ten  years  of  age.  It  is  five 
hundred  chances  to  one,  thanks  to  our  present  system  of 
primary  instruction,  that  they  know  anything  of  form,  not 
even  what  a  straight  line  is ;  and  that  they  have  never 
learned  to  appreciate  a  form  in  order  to  transfer  its  like¬ 
ness  to  slate  or  paper.  In  a  word,  mind,  eye,  and  hand 
are  alike  untrained.  Well,  at  least  there  are  no  bad  habits 
to  unlearn.  Granted,  except  it  be  a  “  villainous  ”  style  of 
holding  a  slate  pencil  about  one  inch  and  a  half  long.  We 
have  otherwise  virgin  soil  to  work  on. 

Now  call  to  mind  what  writing  is  as  we  have  just  de¬ 
scribed  it,  —  that  variety,  delicacy,  boldness,  and  accuracy 
of  form  required.  It  will  surely  be  admitted  that  there  is 
some  work  to  be  done.  Look  a  little  more  closely.  Con¬ 
sider  those  perceptive  faculties  undisciplined,  those  eyes 
untaught  to  observe,  those  arms  and  hands  with  muscles 
not  yet  trained  to  follow  the  mind’s  dictates.  All  that  is 
required  can  be  done  by  patience,  diligence,  and  attention, 
but  it  will  not  be  done  in  an  hour,  —  neither,  perhaps,  very 
soon  in  three  half-hours  per  week.  A  great  many  of 
these  children  will  not  have  more  than  two  years  at  school. 
A  great  many  will  be  present  in  winter  only,  absent 
throughout  the  summer.  A  great  many  of  those  who  re¬ 
main  at  school  longer  and  continuously,  will  have  such  a 
multiplicity  of  studies  that  very  little  time  will  be  given  to 
writing.  What  then  may  be  reasonably  expected  from  the 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 


21 


school  course  of  penmanship  ?  Certainly  not  a  finished 
business  hand.  That  can  only  be  attained  by  very  consid¬ 
erable  practice.  What  may  reasonably  be  expected  is, 
that  such  a  foundation  should  be  laid  as  shall  place  the 
desideratum  within  reach  of  all  who  are  willing  to  give 
the  necessary  practice  to  it  afterwards.  The  mind  and  eye 
ought  to  be  trained  to  the  appreciation  and  distinct  percep¬ 
tion  of  the  form  of  the  letters,  and  the  muscles  should  be 
in  some  degree  trained  to  obedience  to  the  mind  in  con¬ 
structing  those  forms  on  paper.  In  the  majority  of  cases  a 
formal  style  —  what  is  called  a  school-boy’s  hand  —  is  all 
that  can  be  hoped  for. 

Another  question  of  equal  importance  now  arises. 

Which  should  be  taught  first,  —  knowledge  of  form,  or 
command  of  the  pen  ? 

Some  teachers  have  given  preference  to  the  one,  some  to 
the  other.  We  think  they  should  advance  together. 
We  give  at  first,  in  our  copy-books,  the  simplest  forms,  un¬ 
combined,  of  such  a  size  as  to  be  susceptible  of  criticism 
by  the  yet  untutored  mind  and  eye,  and  yet  not  beyond  the 
scope  of  a  child’s  hand  to  execute.  We  require  them  to 
be  written  by  the  finger  movement  only,  which  is  the  easi¬ 
est,  and  makes  the  fewest  demands  on  the  attention,  which 
can  thus  be  more  entirely  directed  to  the  forms.  But  whilst 
we  are  satisfied,  from  our  long  experience,  that  this  is  the 
best  method,  to  present  it  fairly  we  must  describe  it  a  little 
more  fully.  We  will  suppose  the  preliminaries  gone  through 
of  position,  pen-holding,  placing  of  book,  &c.,  which  will 
be  fout  d  described  in  another  place,  and  that  the  pupils  aie 
ready  to  write.  Now  is  the  time  for  the  first  lesson  in 
Form.  At  the  blackboard  is  the  place  to  teach  it.  We 
place  the  form  to  be  written  there.  We  make  it  large, 


22 


INSTRUCTION. 


dwell  on  its  parts,  notice  where  it  begins,  where  it  ends,  its 
length,  its  slope,  its  thickness.  We  compare  it  with  other 
forms,  show  faults  that  are  likely  to  occur,  and  require  the 
pupils  to  criticise  them.  By  every  possible  means  do  we 
strive  to  impress  the  form  upon  their  minds.  We  next 
direct  them  to  this  form  in  their  copy-books,  and  require 
them  to  tell  us  from  that  all  the  particulars  we  have  given 
them.  This  is  our  first  step  to  train  the  mind  to  the 
perception,  and  the  eye  to  the  judgment,  of  form.  We 
proceed  immediately  to  execution.  Placed  in  the  proper 
position,  pen  rightly  held,  &c.,  we  require  them  to  trace 
the  copy  with  dry  pens,  ordering  their  movements  by 
counting.  This  is  continued  whilst  we  watch  their  posi¬ 
tion  and  their  movements.  Their  own  attention  to  the 
instruction  received  is  undisturbed  by  any  dark  record  of 
their  transgressions,  since  their  pens  as  yet  leave  no  traces 
of  their  course,  and  the  pupils  acquire  some  little  control 
of  their  muscles,  command  of  their  pens,  and  courage  for 
the  coming  event.  What  next  ?  They  are  furnished  with 
waste  paper,  ruled  like  the  copy :  a  book  of  the  same  kind, 
divided  through  the  back,  and  given  out  a  page  at  a  time, 
is  very  convenient.  On  this  they  make  their  first  formal 
essay  with  ink.  The  same  deliberate  movement  by  count¬ 
ing  is  enforced.  They  write  about  four  lines  down  a  col¬ 
umn,  when  a  halt  is  called,  for  examination.  Now,  there 
lias  been  this  great  advantage  in  using  the  waste  paper : 
the  pupils  have  been  relieved  of  all  nervousness,  —  re¬ 
member  those  indispensable  muscles  are  solely  controlled 
by  nerves  ;  they  have  felt  no  anxiety  about  spoiling  that 
nice,  new,  clean  copy-book,  with  the  handsome  copies, 
which  is  to  fulfil  the  old  adage,  Litera  scripta  manet.  The 
faults  are  again  displayed  on  the  blackboard,  criticised  by 
the  pupils,  and  the  form  impressed  anew  on  their  minds. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 


23 


If  the  success  has  not  been  very  great,  a  little  more  tracing 
may  be  desirable ;  then  a  few  more  lines  on  the  waste 
paper,  criticism,  &c,,  as  before.  They  are  at  length  pre¬ 
pared  to  write  in  their  copy-books  ;  but,  though  the  attain¬ 
ing  of  this  privilege  has  been  a  great  stimulus  to  their 
pi-evious  endeavors,  there  is  no  novelty  about  it  now  to 
disturb  their  nerves  from  fear  of  failure  in  an  untried  en¬ 
terprise  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  an  old  story.  They 
want  their  books  to  look  well,  so  they  are  going  to  do  their 
best ;  but  they  are  not  at  all  nervous,  —  they  know  what 
they  can  do.  If  ten  or  a  dozen  lessons  have  been  occupied 
as  above,  the  time  has  been  well  spent ;  the  copy-books 
may  not  have  many  pages  tilled,  but  the  pupils  have  not 
been  idle.  Such,  in  brief,  is  our  method,  —  form  first,  then 
execution,  but  yet  so  continually  interchanged  that  attain¬ 
ment  in  both  advances  simultaneously.  We  do  not  allow 
the  writing  to  be  too  slow,  or  the  form  to  be  sacrificed  to 
the  speed.  We  say  this  in  opposition  to  those  who,  on  the 
one  hand,  advocate  form  without  any  regard  to  time,  and 
those  who,  on  the  other  hand,  urge  rapidity  of  movement, 
to  the  almost  utter  neglect  of  form.  All  handicrafts  seem 
to  support  our  view.  Tools  are  used  slowly  at  first,  more 
rapidly  as  their  use  is  better  understood.  What  sort  of 
proof  would  a  tyro  at  the  printing-case  present,  who  should 
set  his  type  as  fast  as  an  experienced  hand  ?  We  are 
satisfied  that  ours  is  the  true  method  of  teaching  writing, 
—  care  to  get  the  correct  form  first  ;  next,  deliberate  exe¬ 
cution  ;  finally,  speed  and  freedom  may  be  expected. 

I 

Gan  a  bad  writer  teach  penmanship  successfully  ? 

This  is  another  important  question.  We  answer,  un¬ 
hesitatingly,  Yes.  We  believe  that  any  teacher  who  will 
faithfully  study  this  Manual,  and  carry  out  its  plans,  will 


24 


INSTRUCTION. 


certainly  succeed.  Especially  can  lie  do  so,  now  that,  by 
means  of  a  set  of  Tablets  made  to  accompany  the  Manual, 
which  we  have  just  published,  he  can  at  all  times  suspend 
before  his  class  a  perfect  representation  of  whatever  re¬ 
quires  explanation.  The  principles,  letters,  and  exercises 
on  these  Tablets  are  fac-similes  of  large-sized  blackboard 
writing.  Being  perfect  in  form  and  proportions,  the  pupils 
w  ill  have  constantly  before  them  a  true  model  for  analysis 
and  criticism.  When  the  Teacher  has  by  these  means 
shown  the  class  what  must  be  done,  he  has  only  to  write 
upon  the  blackboard  such  errors  and  mistakes  as  he  may 
discover  in  his  examination  of  the  scholars’  writing  in  the 
copy-books.  By  continually  pointing  out  these  errors,  and 
comparing  them  with  the  printed  model  suspended  above, 
he  will  be  enabled  to  teach  as  thoroughly  and  successfully 
as  the  most  experienced  instructor. 

The  reason  that  we  have  so  few  good  writers  in  our 
schools  is,  that  penmanship  is  not  taught  elaborately  and 
thoroughly  ;  a  few  criticisms  are  made,  perhaps,  when  the 
copy  is  finished,  but  it  is  then  too  late,  the  mischief  is 
already  done.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  great 
point  is  to  make  the  pupil  really  see  the  copy,  to  transfer 
the  forms  there  to  mental  vision,  so  that  he  can  actually 
see  them  on  the  paper  to  write  over.  Teachers  have  also 
been  left  without  that  information  which  the  writing-master 
acquires  by  experience  in  his  specialty.  This  want  we 
hope  the  Manual  and  Tablets  will  supply. 


REQUISITES. 


25 


CHAPTER  II. 

REQUISITES. 

What  things  are  required  for  an  exercise  in  writing  ? 

Copies,  teaching,  paper,  pens,  ink,  pen-wipers,  blotters. 

Everything,  too,  should  be  good,  —  good  copies,  good 
teaching,  good  paper,  good  pens,  good  ink.  Drawing  can¬ 
not  be  taught  upon  writing-paper,  or  shading  with  a  treble- 
II  pencil.  An  artist  would  make  little  progress  with  a 
box  of  sixpenny  paints.  Even  in  map-drawing  it  pays 
well  to  buy  three  or  four  of  the  best  colors  instead  of  a  few 
cheap  ones.  If  we  make  up  our  minds  to  teach  writing, 
we  must  consider  the  necessary  requirements.  Are  we 
not  in  this  branch  of  education  engaged  in  developing  the 
aesthetic  faculty,  and  training  it  to  a  due  appreciation  of 
form  and  beauty,  which  the  hand  is  to  be  taught  to  pro¬ 
duce  ?  And  shall  we  by  a  niggardly  parsimony  render 
such  production  impossible,  and  quench  all  enthusiasm  in 
the  pupil,  by  depriving  him  of  satisfaction  with  his  work  ? 
Consider  only  how  delicate  that  work  is,  and  there  can  be 
no  further  question  about  the  necessity  for  the  best  instru¬ 
ments  and  materials  with  which  to  accomplish  it.  What 
are  they  ? 

1.  Good  copies.  Our  idea  of  a  good  copy  is  that  the 
letters  should  be  of  elegant  form,  and  constructed  on  natu¬ 
ral  principles.  Every  letter  should  be  as  perfect  as  it  is 
possible,  for  human  skill  to  execute,  that  wherever  it 
occurs  it  may  present  an  unvarying  model  to  the  pupil. 
I'he  turns  and  slopes  should  be  alike,  the  loops  of  the  same 


26 


INSTRUCTION. 


length  and  width,  the  proper  distances  between  the  letters 
carefully  observed,  and  shade  duly  distributed.  The  neg¬ 
lect  of  these  points  in  the  copy  cannot  fail  of  producing 
carelessness  in  respect  to  them  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
If  they  are  not  important  in  the  copy,  he  will  naturally 
argue  that  they  cannot  be  important  for  him  ;  and  that 
accuracy  and  severity  of  conception  and  execution  which 
are  so  necessary  for  the  discipline  of  his  mind  will  be 
altogether  wanting. 

We  are  not  unaware  of  the  idea  entertained  by  some, 
that  inaccuracy  in  the  copies,  since  it  makes  them  approxi¬ 
mate  more  jiearly  to  the  general  style  of  writing,  is  there¬ 
fore  preferable.  But  what  would  be  their  opinion,  if  they 
wished  to  learn  drawing,  and  the  teacher  placed  before 
them  for  imitation  studies  in  which  lines  which  should 
have  been  straight  were  crooked,  perpendiculars  tumbling 
down,  perspective  not  observed,  and  the  rules  he  had  given 
for  their  guidance  everywhere  neglected  ?  Would  they 
feel  altogether  satisfied  at  his  accompanying  polite  remark, 
that  he  gave  them  a  pattern  inaccurate  in  many  par¬ 
ticulars,  that  they  might  find  it  more  easy  of  imitation  ? 
Change  of  circumstances  sometimes  begets  change  of  ideas. 
We  think  it  would  be  so  in  this  case.  Supposing  them  to 
venture  a  meek  remonstrance,  would  they  find  further 
satisfaction  in  being  assured  that  the  pictures  of  many 
inferior  artists  were  very  commonly  disfigured  by  such 
faults.  Theii  reply  as  sensible  persons  might  not  unrea¬ 
sonably  be,  that  they  would  be  willing  to  waive  for  a  time 
the  satisfaction  of  attaining  to  the  excellence  of  the  pattern, 
for  the  more  important  considerations  of  knowing  what  was 
really  right,  and  impressing  a  faultless  standard  on  their 
minds.  Is  not  this  a  perfect  parallel  to  the  case  supposed, 
and  a  complete  refutation  of  the  idea  that  imperfecUcopiea 


REQUISITES. 


27 


in  teaching  writing  are  desirable?  It  applies  equally  to 
the  opinion  held  by  some,  that  written  copies  are  better 
tnan  copies  engraved.  We  have  heard  it  gravely  asserted, 
that  the  pupils  make  more  rapid  progress  by  such  a  course 
of  instruction.  Now  what  is  this  but  to  state,  that  pupils 
attain  the  excellence  of  a  lower  standard  sooner  than  that 
of  a  higher  one  ?  A  fact  that  certainly  no  one  will  be 
lound  bold  enough  to  dispute.  But  it  might,  we  think,  be 
not  unfairly  asked,  whether  the  pupils  were  not  by  this 
means  receiving  the  impression  of  imperfect  and  constantly 
varying  forms  on  their  minds,  whether  their  conceptions 
would  not  thus  run  the  risk  of  being  rather  vague  and 
indefinite,  and  consequently  whether  this  was  after  all  the 
best  method  of  instruction.  We  have  said  nothing  of  the 
complete  change  resulting  when  the  teacher  is  changed, 
nor  of  the  impossibility  of  any  accurate  analysis,  considera¬ 
tions  which  are  not  without  their  weight.  We  think  the 
matter  requires  no  further  elucidation.  Both  views  are 
fallacies.  It  is  satisfactory  to  think  that  they  are  not 
popular. 

To  resume  our  consideration  of  good  copies,  the  forms 
u-sed  should  be  through  a  considerable  part  of  the  course 
of  the  utmost  simplicity,  that  the  attention  of  the  pupil  may 
not  be  distracted  from  essentials,  that  he  may  be  able  to 
produce  a  handsome  book  from  the  outset,  and,  if  we  may 
be  allowed  to  add  it,  receive  his  earliest  impressions  in 
favor  of  a  plain,  substantial  hand.  Curlicues,  flourishes, 
and  ornamental  capitals,  may  delight  an  amateur  in  a  show¬ 
case  ;  a  thorough  business  man  detests  them  in  his  corre¬ 
spondence. 

The  course  of  instruction  given  in  the  copies  should 
constitute  a  system,  arranged  in  that  order  of  progression 
which  is  indicated  by  a  careful  analysis  of  the  forms  of  the 


28 


INSTRUCTION. 


letters  and  of  the  powers  of  the  human  hand,  so  that  each 
advance  may  prepare  the  way  for  the  next,  and  the  steps 
not  be  farther  apart  than  the  necessities  of  the  case  compel. 
To  this  end,  the  simpler  forms  should  precede  the  more 
complex  ;  the  short,  the  long.  Those  that  have  similar 
curves  and  turns  and  identical  parts  should  be  together. 
Words  should  precede  sentences.  The  columns  should  be 
first  narrow,  then  broader,  to  accustom  the  hand  by  degrees 
to  move  easily  on  the  given  rests  across  the  longest  word. 
These  columnar  sections,  intended  to  be  written  down,  are 
the  gradual  preparation  for  the  sentences,  which  occupy  the 
width  of  the  page.  The  selection  of  the  words  for  the 
columns  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  same  principle 
of  progressiveness,  —  first  the  easier,  then  the  more  diffi¬ 
cult  combinations.  In  them  the  loops  should  so  occur  that 
when  the  copy  is  written  they  may  be  handsomely  distrib¬ 
uted,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  page  be  harmo¬ 
nious.  If  it  is  objected  that  such  an  arbitrary  arrange¬ 
ment  is  valueless,  because  in  our  general  writing  it  does 
not  obtain,  we  reply  that  there  is  a  distinct  object  to  be 
kept  in  view  in  teaching  penmanship,  which  is  to  awaken 
and  discipline  the  perception  of  beauty  in  the  pupil’s  mind, 
and  to  excite  and  quicken  his  love  of  it.  Then  in  rec¬ 
ords  and  correspondence  he  will  do  the  best  that  the  case 
allows.  His  copy-book  is  an  exhibition  of  his  progress : 
why  should  any  source  of  behuty  be  neglected  in  it  ?  A? 
a  general  rule,  the  greater  the  satisfaction  with  the  pro¬ 
gress  made,  the  more  earnest  the  endeavor  after  higher 
attainment.  Discouragement  has  blighted  the  growth  of 
man}-  a  promising  mind. 

2.  Good  teaching.  A  standard  of  form  being  furnished 
•n  the  good  copies,  good  teaching  is  next  requisite  to  bring 
out  their  highest  availability.  The  pupil  wall  look  at  those 


REQUISITES. 


25j 

fonns,  but  he  will  not  see  them.  There  is  great  differ* 
ence  between  looking  and  seeing.  To  test  this,  draw  an 
irregular  figure  on  the  board  contained  by  seven  or  eight 
straight  lines,  bid  a  class  look  at  it  attentively,  without  tell¬ 
ing  them  what  you  wish  them  to  do  afterwards.  Then 
cover  it,  and  bid  them  draw  one  like  it  on  the  board  or  on 
their  slates.  How  many  do  you  think  will  have  even  the 
right  number  of  lines,  much  more  their  right  positions  ? 
Try  it.  The  good  teacher  will  not  leave  a  form  till  they 
all  see  it,  and  can  describe  it  minutely.  The  next  point 
for  w'hich  a  good  teacher  is  required  is  for  the  correct 
representation  of  what  should  now  be  the  mental  conception 
of  that  form  on  paper.  To  this  end,  he  instructs  in  posi¬ 
tion,  pen-holding,  rests,  and  movements,  and  takes  care 
that  his  instructions  are  obeyed.  He  handles  his  class  as 
a  good  officer  does  a  regiment,  —  the  whole  are  drilled  to 
act  as  a  unit.  He  so  furnishes  his  own  mind  that  his 
pupils  rely  on  his  judgment,  and  are  ready  cheerfully  to 
write  in  the  number,  or  practise  on  the  copy,  he  selects. 
Last,  not  least,  his  motto  is,  “  Always  one  thing  at  a  time.” 
While  thus  faithfully  performing  his  duties  as  a  good 
teacher,  he  is  not  annoyed  by  his  pupils  constantly  dis¬ 
covering  in  their  copies  a  want  of  conformity  to  the  stand¬ 
ard  given  by  rules  and  analysis;  for,  under  skilled  and 
faithful  teaching,  their  critical  powers  soon  become  won¬ 
derfully  acute.  They  have  no  occasion  for  saying,  “  Our 
teacher  is  too  fussy  about  little  things.  He  said  the  stem 
of  the  q  was  to  be  three  spaces ;  and  here  in  the  copy,  in 
one  place,  it  is  three  and  a  half,  and,  in  another,  a  whole 
space  short.  I  guess  Mr.  Scribbler,  the  author  of  th.s 
famous  Scribbletian  system,  knows  how  to  write  about  as 
well  as  our  teacher.  It  evidently  isn’t  worth  while  to 
take  so  much  trouble  about  all  these  little  things.  The 


30 


INSTRUCTION. 


main  point  is  freedom.”  And  thus  the  young  reasoner  is 
tempted  to  run  before  lie  can  walk,  and,  from  the  natural 
consequences  of  such  procedure,  to  get  a  crippled  hand  for 
the  rest  of  his  life. 

3.  Good  paper.  Here  we  begin  to  tread  on  delicate 
ground.  The  pocket  is  touched.  Good  paper  cannot  be 
put  into  books  at  the  same  price  as  bad.  Where  there  is 
so  much  competition  as  in  copy-books,  you  may  rest  as¬ 
sured  that,  whatever  may  be  the  quality  of  the  specimens 
shown,  no  one  can  much  undersell  his  competitors  without 
supplying  an  inferior  article.  Prices  at  present,  owing  to 
strong  competition,  are  so  low,  that  lower  would  yield  no 
profit,  and  therefore,  believers,  as  we  may  be,  in  the  self- 
denying  devotedness  of  humanity  in  this  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  we  think  it  a  little  too  tough  for  credence,  that  a 
business  man  will  supply  a  school  or  city  with  books  at  a 
loss,  for  the  mere  pleasure  afforded  by  such  a  generous 
act,  —  favored  individual  as  the  teacher  or  city  so  supplied 
may  suppose  itself  to  be.  At  a  lower  price,  the  article 
must  be  inferior.  Now,  if  the  inferior  article  is  satisfac¬ 
tory  because  of  its  price,  well  and  good.  All  we  would 
caution  you  against  is  the  idea  that  a  good  article  in  this 
line  can  be  had  as  cheap  as  a  bad  one,  and  against  those 
(Ji-honest  persons  who  exhibit  a  paper  of  the  same  quality 
a>  their  neighbor’s,  and,  obtaining  an  order  by  the  lowness 
of  their  rates,  proceed  immediately  to  fill  it  with  that 
which  is  very  inferior. 

A  good  paper  costs  more,  but  it  is  indispensable.  It 
should  be  tolerably  thick,  well  laid,  with  a  smooth  surface, 
moderately  glazed ;  so  that  the  ink  will  not  show  through 
when  dry,  and  that  there  may  be  no  roughnesses  nor  little 
hairs  for  the  pen  to  pick  up,  and  that  the  pen  may  glide 
along  without  jar  on  the  muscles  or  nerves  of  the  fin- 


REQUISITES. 


31 


gers  and  hand,  —  a  very  important  consideration  now  that 
steel  pens  are  used,  as  paralysis  has  in  several  instances 
resulted  from  their  use,  and  their  injurious  effect  must 
needs  be  greater  on  a  rough  surface.  A  white  paper  is 
generally  to  be  preferred  to  a  blue,  indeed  is  almost  inva¬ 
riably  used.  What  is  our  plea  for  the  use  of  such  a 
paper  as  we  have  described  ?  The  encouragement  it  gives 
to  both  teacher  and  pupil  to  be  able  to  produce  handsome 
work.  How  can  they  go  on  with  any  heart,  when  the  copy 
on  one  side  of  a  leaf  is  blurred  by  that  on  the  other ;  when 
it  is  impossible  to  make  a  fine  hair-line  or  a  clean  cut 
shade ;  when  the  pen  is  continually  “  picking  up  sticks  ” ; 
when  unglazed  spots,  anything  but  oases,  for  they  are  as 
absorbent  as  sand  itself,  are  found  every  here  and  there ; 
when  the  very  whiteness  of  the  page  is  a  whity-brown? 
With  such  paper  little  enthusiasm  can  be  expected.  But 
give  them  a  book  with  handsome  copies  and  good  paper, 
see  how  their  eyes  glisten  as  they  pass  their  hands  over 
the  page,  —  a  pleasure,  by  the  way,  in  which  it  is  not  well 
to  indulge  very  often,  —  and  it  requires  but  a  superficial 
judge  of  the  human  heart  to  read  their  thought,  “  This  is 
a  good  book,  —  we  must  put  good  writing  into  it,  and  no 
blots.”  Good  paper,  therefore,  pays  in  the  end.  It  also 
makes  a  considerable  difference  in  the  wear  of  pens. 

4.  Good  pens.  Very  little  need  be  said  on  this  point. 
The  pen  should  be  fine-pointed,  so  that  a  good  hair-line 
can  be  made,  and  have  a  good  springy  nib,  that  the  shades 
may  be  cleanly  cut,  and  that  the  writing  may  not  be  ren¬ 
dered  stiff,  a  result  inevitably  following  the  use  of  a  “hard” 
pen.  They  should  be  of  a  uniform  character  as  much  as 
possible,  —  not  one  very  hard  and  another  '  very  soft. 
Slight  differences  cannot  be  avoided ;  those  that  vary  least 
are  the  best,  if  they  are  right  in  other  respects.  We  have 


32 


INSTRUCTION. 


found  no  pen  equal  to  Gillott’s  303.  Other  pens  we  know 
can  be  bought  cheaper.  But  his  are  very  durable,  and  it 
is  a  question  worthy  the  consideration  ot  a  debating-soci¬ 
ety,  “  Which  is  preferable,  three  poor  pens  for  a  penny,  oi 
one  good  one  for  the  same  price,  which  alone  will  last  as 
long  as  the  three  together  ?  ”  Many,  perhaps,  without  de¬ 
bate,  would  declare  in  favor  of  the  good  one,  notwithstand* 
ing  its  singularity. 

A  new  pen  is  often  greasy,  owing  to  a  certain  process  in 
the  manufacture,  and  will  not  retain  the  ink.  Dip  it  and 
raise  it  from  the  ink  slowly,  then  wipe  it ;  repeat  this  two 
or  three  times  and  the  trouble  will  be  removed. 

5.  Good  ink.  This  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  procure. 
It  should  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  flow  easily  from  the  pen, 
dark  enough  to  enable  the  pupil  to  see  at  the  time  what  he 
is  writing,  and  to  judge  of  hair-strokes  and  shades.  It 
must  not  evaporate  rapidly  from  the  inkstand,  nor  leave  a 
layer  of  mud  in  it;  neither  should  it  mould.  Frost  should 
not  affect  it.  Some  inks,  when  frozen,  an  accident  which 
will  happen  occasionally  in  country  schools,  are  completely 
spoilt.  No  chemical  analysis  ever  more  completely  sepa¬ 
rated  solid  from  fluid,  leaving  them  in  a  state  never  more 
to  be  usefully  reunited.  In  instances  which  have  come 
under  our  notice,  one  might  as  well  attempt  to  write  with 
charcoal  and  water.  Does  any  one  question  why  the  lat¬ 
ter  mixture  would  not  answer  ?  The  reply  is  simple,  the 
black  would  rub  off  or  wash  out.  Ink  should  stain  the 
oaper  in  order  to  be  permanent.  Its  color  when  thor¬ 
oughly  dry  should  be  a  deep  black,  which  neither  time  noi 
exposure  to  the  sun  can  change. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  necessary  to  give  attention  to 
keeping  the  ink  in  good  order.  If  it  becomes  too  thick,  a 
little  soft  water  may  be  added  by  means  of  a  sponge,  and 


REQUISITES. 


33 


the  ink  stirred  up,  only  taking  care  not  to  make  it  too  pale. 
Pupils  often  complain  of  their  pens,  when  the  real  fault  is 
in  the  ink  or  the  paper. 

Teach  them  how  to  take  ink.  Let  them  learn  by  ex¬ 
periment,  that,  if  they  raise  the  pen  from  the  ink  suddenly, 
it  will  be  too  full,  and  apt  to  blot ;  if  very  slowly,  the 
attraction  of  the  fluid  will  leave  none  in  the  pen  ;  and, 
therefore,  a  moderate  motion  must  be  used.  One  experi¬ 
ment  is  worth  hours  of  talking.  Attention  to  this  will  save 
many  a  blot. 

6.  Pen-wipers.  Cleanliness  is  as  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  well-being  of  the  pen,  as  for  our  own.  The  ap¬ 
plying  things  to  their  right  uses  is  a  habit  as  important 
for  the  child  as  for  the  man.  Not  being  acquainted,  how¬ 
ever,  with  the  physiological  value  of  hair,  the  youth  is  apt 
to  regard  the  covering  of  his  pericranium,  indifferent  to 
the  oil  with  which  nature  has  supplied  it,  even  when  he 
has  not  made  artificial  additions,  as  a  most  convenient  pen¬ 
wiper,  possessing  the  inestimable  property  of  never  being 
mislaid.  When  this  use  of  it  is  forbidden,  the  pen  is  very 
apt  to  find  its  way  into  his  mouth,  an  instrument  certainly 
most  admirably  adapted,  from  its  internal  arrangements,  to 
the  end  he  has  in  view  ;  but  there  are  several  objections  in 
addition  to  this  slight  one,  that  the  best  inks  are  poison¬ 
ous,  and  so  little  agreeable  generally  to  the  taste,  that  the 
emptying  of  the  mouth  becomes  immediately  necessary, 
and  spittoons  are  not  always  handy.  Parts  of  the  garments 
are  the  next  resource:  if  they  were  always  dark-colored 
and  of  cloth,  they  might  answer  very  well ;  but,  the  habit 
once  being  formed,  a  rather  unsightly  mark  may  be  placed 
upon  the  light  colors  of  summer  wear.  It  seems,  there¬ 
fore,  desirable  to  have  something  specially  set  apart  for 
this  use.  Two  or  tlcee  different-sized  circles  of  dark 


2* 


a 


34 


INSTRUCTION. 


cloth,  cut  from  some  old  garment,  with  a  small  mother-ol 
pearl  button  sewed  on  the  top,  through  the  centre,  makes  a 
cheap  and  suitable  pen-wiper.  Each  pupil  should  be  re¬ 
quired  to  bring  one,  or  something  of  the  same  kind.  It 
should  be  mentioned  that  they  are  to  go  into  a  common 
stock,  and  that,  since  to  insure  their  presence  at  the  exer¬ 
cise,  and  to  keep  them  free  from  grease,  they  will  be  col¬ 
lected,  there  will  not  be  time  when  they  are  given  out  to 
select  his  own  for  each  pupil.  There  will  be  no  dissatis¬ 
faction  at  this  arrangement,  if  it  is  understood  beforehand. 
Otherwise,  some  might  bring  very  handsome  ones,  and  feel 
annoyed  that  they  should  receive  in  the  distribution  shabby 
ones  instead.  They  should  be  also  encouraged  to  have  an¬ 
other  for  private  use,  distinctly  marked,  which  can  be  kept 
in  their  desks.  The  pen-wipers  may  be  collected  and  dis¬ 
tributed  as  directed  in  the  chapter  on  Drill.  They  should 
be  used  whenever  the  pens  are  laid  down  for  instruction, 
or  once  in  the  middle  of  the  time  of  writing,  if  there  is  no 
interruption.  Of  course,  the  pens  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  at  the  close  of  the  exercise.  Always  dip  and 
wipe  a  new  pen  two  or  three  times  before  it  is  written 
with,  or  it  will  be  very  likely  to  make  a  blot.  To  avoid 
the  same  mishap,  the  pen  should  never  be  wiped  on  the 
outside  of  the  pen-wiper,  but  always  between  the  leaves  of 
it.  Should  the  pen-wiper  then  happen  to  get  on  the  book, 
no  damage  will  be  done. 

7.  Blotters.  A  stiff  one  will  last  the  longest,  and  is 
very  cheap,  but  common  blotting-paper,  or  a  piece  of  white 
paper  or  any  paper,  will  answer,  not  indeed  for  blotting, 
but  for  the  use  we  now  designate.  The  copy-book  must 
be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  the  blotter  is  to  be  used  for 
that  purpose.  The  right  hand  does  not  soil  the  book,  for 
it  rests  on  the  nails  of  two  fingers  and  only  touches  the 


REQUISITES. 


35 


page  with  them.  It  is  the  left  hand  that  does  the  mischief. 
To  obviate  it,  place  the  blotter  so  as  to  cover  each  column 
as  soon  as  it  is  dry  after  being  written,  and  rest  the  left 
hand  on  that,  and  not  on  the  page.  Do  not  use  it  to  absorb 
the  ink,  it  is  apt  to  spoil  the  appearance.  Let  the  same 
side  always  be  on  the  page,  so  that  the  grease  it  derives 
from  the  hand  may  not  be  transferred  to  the  book.  Let 
the  pupils  understand  the  reasons,  and  that  there  is  a 
natural  greasiness  in  perspiration,  which  renders  soap  ne 
cessary  in  washing,  to  neutralize  it  by  its  excess  of  alkali. 
Caution  them  against  placing  their  hands  on  any  paper  to 
be  written  on,  as  the  grease  will  repel  the  ink,  and  the  pen 
will  not  mark.  When  this  is  the  case,  they  always  blame 
the  pen,  but  it  is  caused  by  their  own  fault. 

8.  Covers.  Every  book  should  have  a  cover.  Toler 
ably  stiff  brown  or  white  paper  is  the  best,  but  have  all 
alike.  Since  there  is  no  thickness  to  the  cover  or  back  of 
the  copy-book,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  put  on  the  pro¬ 
tecting  cover  neatly.  Take  the  piece  of  paper  to  be  used 
and  double  it,  so  that  the  crease  may  be  for  the  back,  and 
then,  laying  the  book  on  it,  cut  it  about  four  inches  larger 
than  the  book  on  each  of  the  three  edges  ;  a  less  margin  is 
apt  to  be  troublesome,  from  not  keeping  the  limber  cover 
in  its  place.  Then,  from  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  book 
at  the  fold  cut  off  from  the  paper  right-angled  triangles, 
this  piece  should  be  cut  off,  because  there  is  no  breadth 
to  the  back,  and  consequently  no  edge  to  protect,  and  we 
do  not  wish  to  have  the  cover  thick  and  uneven.  The 
book  being  now  placed  within,  the  cover  is  folded  at  the 
end  first  and  then  at  the  top  and  bottom.  If  preferred,  the 
paper  at  the  top  and  bottom  may  be  turned  in  between  the 
cover  and  leaves  without  cutting  off  the.  piece  mentioned. 
The  name  of  the  owner  should  be  written  on  each  book  in 


36 


INSTRUCTION. 


the  proper  place  before  it  is  covered,  and  again  written  on 
the  false  cover,  in  the  same  place  for  all.  This  saves 
much  trouble.  Remember  that  even  such  an  apparently 
trifling  matter  as  this  covering  the  book  produces  an  im¬ 
pression  on  the  pupil’s  mind.  It  is  a  strong  incentive  to 
keep  it  nice.  He  sees  that  you  care  about  it,  and  are 
willing  to  take  some  pains  to  effect  it. 

9.  Oblique  lines.  We  have  published  a  page  ruled 
with  oblique  lines  for  teaching  uniformity  of  slope.  Across 
the  middle  is  a  horizontal  line,  by  which  it  is  adjusted  to 
one  of  the  lines  of  the  book.  The  slant  ruled  in  it  is 
the  main  slope  of  the  writing,  and  the  lines  are  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  This  is  not  an  absolute 
requisite,  but  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience.  The 
children  are  guided  and  trained  in  the  true  slope  by  the 
lines  showing  through  the  page,  and  they  hre  thus  ena¬ 
bled  to  direct  their  attention  more  entirely  to  form  and 
movement. 


ON  SCRIPT  AND  PRINT. 


37 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON  SCRIPT  AND  PRINT. 

It  will  be  found  of  much  interest  to  the  pupil  to  com¬ 
pare  the  script  letters  with  those  used  in  printing.  Some 
nseful  suggestions  result.  The  straight  line  and  the  circle 
are  predominant  in  type,  while  the  letters  are  perpendicular 
to  the  base  line.  The  general  termination  is  a  straight  line, 
finished  by  a  horizontal  hair-line,  as  in  b,  d,  h,  i,  &c.  If 
an  experiment  is  made  in  printing  a  sentence  with  a  pen, 
it  will  be  seen  at  once  how  ill  adapted  these  forms  are  for 
the  purpose  of  what  we  term  writing.  The  Italian  hand, 
similarly  tested  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  presents  some 
interesting  features  for  reflection.  It  can  be  written  much 
faster  than  the  Roman.  Why  ?  Evidently  because  of  the 
slope  avoiding  the  difficult  perpendicular,  and  the  substitu¬ 
tion  of  curves  for  the  finishing  horizonal  lines.  Here  is 
clearly  the  first  step  towards  our  present  script  hand.  The 
main  hinderance  to  speed  remaining  is  the  isolation  of  the 
letters.  Each  is  still  made  separate.  And,  although  the 
pen  is  raised  less  often  in  the  formation  of  a  letter,  — ■ 
compare  b,  b ,  for  instance,  —  yet  improvement  is  evidently 
possible  in  this  direction. 

Let  us  pause,  a  moment  to  reflect  on  what  should  be  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  print,  as  compared  with 
writing.  We  shall  not  err  in  saying,  that  of  print  should 
be  legibility,  —  it  is  to  be  read  ;  that  of  writing,  facility  of 
execution,  —  it  is  to  be  written.  Now,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  the  isolation  of  the  letters  in  type,  and  theii 


38 


INSTRUCTION. 


vertical  direction,  give  the  highest  available  legibility,  whilst 
these  peculiarities  are  the  greatest  hinderance  to  rapidity 
of  execution  with  the  pen.  Slope  and  union  of  the  letters, 
so  as  to  avoid  lifting  the  pen  and  to  enable  a  whole  word 
to  be  written  continuously,  would  overcome  these  difficulties, 
and  give  us  the  facility  of  rapid  execution  required,  without 
interfering  in  too  great  a  degree  with  legibility. 

We  have  thus  discovered  the  natural  law  which  would 
control  the  change  from  type  to  script  letters.  It  is  very 
interesting  and  instructive  to  mark  its  operation,  and  to 
observe  the  influence  of  the  instinctive  demand  for  har¬ 
mony  and  beauty  arising  from  the  aesthetic  faculties  of  the 
mind.  The  broad  features  of  the  change  were  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  slope  and  the  union  of  the  letters,  as  has  been 
already  noticed.  As  to  the  former,  taste  demanded  that  the 
slope  should  be  uniform,  while  legibility  protested  against 
too  acute  an  angle.  As  to  the  latter,  it  may  be  well  to  tjjke 
a  few  examples.  Consider  the  printed  letter  m.  The  idea 
is  evidently  three  straight,  vertical  lines.  It  is  not  to  be 
joined  to  any  other  letters,  though  it  may  “stand  up”  beside 
them.  The  first  part,  therefore,  is  left  a  straight  line  with 
its  formal  boundaries.  The  next  line  is  to  be  joined  to  the 
first  as  part  of  the  letter ;  this  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
circular  turn,  or  hook,  at  its  -top.  This  is  eminently  sug¬ 
gestive.  The  same  remark  is  to  be  made  of  the  third 
part ;  but  as,  like  the  first,  it  shares  the  same  doom  of  hope¬ 
less  celibacy,  it  ends  as  a  straight  line  with  a  similar  hori¬ 
zontal  limit.  When  this  letter  is  transferred  to  the  flowery 
land  of  script,  certain  natural  changes  take  place  in  its 
constitution.  It  loses  its  stiff,  formal  character.  All  its 
lines  become  graceful  and  flowing.  The  “  bolt-upright  ” 
is  exchanged  for  the  gentle  slope.  The  circular  turns  ap<? 
modified  into  ovals.  The  hooks  of  family  relationship, 


ON  SCRIPT  AND  PRINT. 


39 


instead  of  being  stuck  into  the  shoulders,  are  turned  into 
tlowing  links  of  union  attached  near  the  feet  to  prevent 
wandering.  And,  as  the  letter  is  now  to  be  united  to  oth- 
ers,  the  ungraceful  rigidness  which  marked  its  beginning 
and  close  is  transformed,  in  both  cases,  into  an  agreeable 
turn  and  curve. 

Variety  is  essential  to  beauty,  and  where  utility  is  not 
interfered  with,  this  feature  has  not  been  neglected.  The 
straight  line  as  the  upper  termination  of  the  i,  u,  &c.,  for 
instance,  has  been  preserved,  the  turn  at  the  other  extrem¬ 
ity  affording  compensation;  and,  for  connection,  a  curve 
was  added  to  their  left  sides.  A  similar  connecting  line 
added  to  the  b,  h,  k,  1,  would  naturally  pass  into  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  a  loop,  the  elegance  of  which,  as  compared  with  a 
mere  straight  line,  furnishes  at  once  its  apology  and  its  jus¬ 
tification.  The  t  and  d,  being  shorter  and  shaded,  by  re¬ 
taining  the  simple  form  afford  a  pleasing  diversity,  and 
compete  not  unfavorably  with  their  aristocratic  brethren. 

From  these  considerations,  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  down-strokes  are  the  main  parts  of  the  letters,  and 
that  the  up-strokes,  with  a  few  exceptions,  which  the  com¬ 
parison  we  are  making  indicates,  are  merely  connecting 
lines,  either  between  the  several  parts  of  a  letter,  or  for 
purposes  of  connection  between  that  letter  and  others, 
when  required.  It  may  be  noticed  here,  that  the  connect¬ 
ing  line  should  never  be  omitted,  even  though  the  lettex 
stands  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  word. 

We  will  now  consider  the  exceptions  noticed  above. 
The  slope  we  have  adopted  in  our  copy-books  for  the 
down-strokes  is  an  angle  of  50°  from  the  base  line.  If  now 
we  wish  to  connect  two  lines  on  this  slope,  which  are  a 
certain  distance  apart,  by  a  diagonal  line,  it  is  evident  that 
it  cannot  be  done  by  a  line  of  the  same  slope.  We  place 


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ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


6fl 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

There  are  two  grammatical  divisions  of  letters,  distin¬ 
guished  by  their  forms  ;  the  small  letters,  which  fimn  the 
main  body  of  writing,  and  the  capitals,  which  are  used  on 
special  occasions.  We  shall  begin  with  the  analysis  of  the 
small  letters,  because  they  occur  oftenest  and  because  their 
forms  are  simpler.  We  shall  not  take  them  up  in  their 
alphabetical  order,  but  in  that  which  gives  the  easiest  first, 
and  shows  their  similarity,  arising  from  the  possession  of 
common  principles.  This  is  the  method  adopted  in  our 
copy-books,  in  order  to  render  our  system  of  teaching 
gradually  progressive. 

An  index  is  given  after  the  general  rules  for  email  let¬ 
ters,  so  that  any  letter  can  be  immediately  found  in  the 
analysis. 

SECTION  I. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 

General  Rules. 

Rule  1.  Letters  are  constructed  from  principles,  ele¬ 
ments,  and  a  few  exceptional  forms.  They  consist  of  main 
and  connecting  lines. 

Rule  2.  The  slope  of  the  main  lines  is  50°  from  the 
base;  the  slope  of  the  connecting  lines  is  35°  from  the 
base.  The  latter  is  modified,  as  occasion  requires,  in 


66 


INSTRUCTION. 


joining  one  letter  to  another  according  to  tie  rules  for 
combination. 

Rule  3.  Every  letter  begins  and  ends  with  a  con¬ 
necting  line. 

Rule  4.  The  introductory  connecting  line  starts  from 
the  base  line  on  which  the  letters  are  written  ;  the  closing 
connecting  line  ends  at  the  head  line. 

Rule  5.  A  connecting  line  is  joined  to  a  main  line  by 
a  turn,  as  in  Principle  1  ;  by  an  angle,  termed  a  connec¬ 
tion,  as  in  u;  or  by  a  coincidence,  as  in  o.  In  a  connection 
or  a  coincidence,  it  touches  the  main  line  one  fourth  of  its 
height,  as  in  i,  a  ;  except  in  t,  which  it  joins  in  the  middle, 
and  p ,  which  it  joins  at  the  top. 

Rule  6.  A  connecting  line  crosses  a  main  line  at  one 
third  of  its  height,  as  in  h,  e. 

Rule  7.  Dots  or  bulbs  are  always  made  on  the  main 
slope. 

Remark. — Where  examples  are  given,  reference  is  in¬ 
tended  to  the  written  forms,  which  may  be  found  in  the 
Plates. 

THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 

In  teaching,  it  will  be  well  to  analyze  every  letter,  not 
only  by  principles,  but  by  elements. 

See  Lesson  V.  on  Small  Letters. 

Index,  a,  9  —  b,  21  — c,  11  — d,  10  — e,  12  — f  26 
—  g,  23  —  h,  18  —  7,  1  —j,  22  —  k,  19  —l,  20—  m,  4  — 
n,  3  — o,  8  — p ,  15  —  q,  16  —  r,  13  — s.  14  —  t,  17  —  u, 
2  —  v,  5  —  w ,  6  —  jc,  7  —  y,  24  —  z,  25  —  long  s,  27. 

E.  stands  for  Element,  P.  for  Principle,  and  c.  1.  for 
connecting  line. 

1.  —  i  —  E.  3,  c .  1.  -j-  P.  1  -j-  dot. 

The  dot  is  made  on  the  main  slope,  one  space  abova 
Eor  the  connection,  see  Rule  5.  Observe  R.  4. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


67 


2.  —  u=  E.  3,  c.  1.  -{-  P.  1  P*  1* 

The  width  is  one  space.  The  two  main  lines  and  the 
three  connecting  lines  respectively  are  parallel.  The  turns 
are  alike.  There  are  two  connections.  See  R.  5.  Attend 
also  to  R.  4. 

Remark.  —  When  teaching,  see  that  the  pupil  begins  and 
ends  in  the  column  where  the  copy  begins  and  ends,  makes  the 
same  number  of  letters  as  in  the  copy,  keeps  the  spaces  and 
widths  right,  an  accurate  slope,  and  the  same  height  through¬ 
out. 

3.  —  n  =  P.  2  -j-  P.  3. 

The  width  is  one  space.  Observe  the  parallelism. 
Analyze  by  the  elements.  Note  that  the  last  c.  1.  is 
different  from  the  first  two.  Show  that  the  three  turns 
are  exactly  similar. 

4.  —  m  =  P.  2  -j-  n  =  P.  2  -j-  P.  2  P.  3. 

The  width  is  two  spaces.  Analyze  by  elements.  Notice 
the  difference  between  the  commencing  and  the  closing 
line.  Let  the  four  turns  be  exactly  alike,  and  the  two 
connections ;  and  let  the  three  main  lines  and  the  four  con¬ 
necting  lines  be  on  the  same  slope,  respectively. 

5.  —  v  =  P.  3  -(-  dot  -f-  horizontal  connecting  line. 

The  width  is  half  a  space.  The  last  up-stroke  is  not  a 
connecting  line,  but  a  main  part,  as  may  be  seen  by  com¬ 
parison  with  the  printed  letter.  (See  Chap.  III.)  It  has  a 
little  more  than  the  main  slope,  and  the  width  between 
the  two  sides  of  the  letter  increases  gradually  upwards. 
The  dot  is  merely  a  neat  finish,  and  a  starting-point  for 
the  connecting  line.  It  requires  some  care  to  make  it 
neatly.  Adopt  this  method.  When  the  third  element  has 
been  carried  to  the  height  of  the  letter,  the  pen  is  stopped 
and  a  slight  pressure  is  made,  returning  on  the  line,  and 


68 


INSTRUCTION. 


immediately  suspended ;  then  a  very  slighuy  curved  line 
is  carried,  nearly  horizontally,  to  the  right,  for  connection 
with  the  next  letter.  Take  care  that  the  dot  is  made  very 
small,  and  that  the  line  does  not  sag  down  in  a  clumsy 
manner ;  it  is  to  be  nearly  straight. 

6.  —  w  =  P.  3  -}-  P.  1  -j-  dot  and  horizontal  c.  1. 

The  width  is  a  space  and  a  half.  The  remarks  made 
on  v  apply  here.  The  second  up-stroke  is  not  a  connecting 
line  ;  it  is  parallel  to  the  third  up-stroke.  It  will  be  ob¬ 
served  that  the  second  part  of  the  letter  is  a  little  narrower 
than  the  first. 

7.  —  x  =  P.  3  -j-  E.  1  crossing  it. 

The  third  principle  on  the  main  slope  is  crossed  through 
the  middle  by  the  first  element  made  on  the  slope  of  the 
connecting  lines.  Observe,  therefore,  that  the  three  hair 
lines  are  parallel. 

8.  —  o  —  E.  4,  c.  1.  -f-  oval  -(-  dot  and  horizontal  connecting  line. 

To  write  this  letter,  when  preceded  by  the  connecting 
line  on  the  usual  slope,  carry  the  c.  1.  well  up  to  the  top, 
increasing  its  curve  to  fit  the  oval,  return  on  this  line  to 
one  fourth  of  the  vertical  height  of  the  letter,  and  form  the 
oval.  To  close  the  top,  we  direct  a  very  small  dot  to  be 
made,  and  the  connecting  line  is  added  as  in  v.  It  is 
optional  whether  the  dot  should  be  added  or  not.  We 
have  adopted  it  to  insure  the  neat  closing  of  the  top. 
When  used,  it  must  be  very  small.  Take  care  that  both 
sides  of  the  oval  are  evenly  curved.  The  most  common 
faults  are  making  the  left  curve  too  straight,  and  leaving 
the  letter  open  at  the  top.  The  latter  must  be  avoided 
by  carrying  the  connecting  line  well  over. 

9.  —  a  =  E.  4,  c.  1.  +  P.  4  -|-  P.  1. 

In  writing  this  letter,  the  connecting  line  must  be  carried 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


69 


over  further  than  for  the  o,  namely,  to  the  exti*eme  right 
of  the  fourth  principle,  to  the  top  of  which  it  must  conform 
in  shape,  for  it  is  retraced  by  the  pen  when  that  principle 
is  made.  The  coincidence  extends  through  half  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  left  side  measured  from  the  tip  of  the 
nose ;  this  coincidence  is  one  fourth  of  the  vertical  height. 
The  first  principle  coincides  through  one  half  the  height 
with  the  right  side  of  the  fourth.  Much  attention  will 
be  needed  to  see  that  pupils  do  not  leave  the  top  of  this 
letter  open,  a  very  common  fault,  and  one  most  annoying 
to  the  reader,  for  it  causes  the  letter  to  look  like  u.  To 
avoid  it,  the  connecting  line  must  be  swung  well  over. 

10.  —  d  =  E.  4,  c.  1.  -f-  P.  4  -|-  P.  1  with  the  First  Element 

lengthened. 

The  remarks  on  a  apply  here ;  the  only  difference  is  in 
the  height  of  the  first  principle.  In  writing  this  letter, 
the  up-stroke  of  the  fourth  principle  is  continued  to  the 
height  of  the  stem,  two  and  a  half  spaces,  and  retraced. 
This  stem  is  generally  shaded.  To  make  it  look  hand¬ 
some  when  done,  stop  when  the  proper  height  is  attained 
by  the  up-stroke,  and  split  the  pen  to  form  a  square  top ; 
then  descend  with  a  fair  even  stroke  till  the  turn  is 
reached  ;  then  the  pressure  is  released  and  the  turn  made. 
By  this  means  only  can  a  square  top,  whose  upper  edge 
is  parallel  to  the  base  line,  he  formed  with  well  defined 
sharp  corners.  Guard  against  having  a  short  club  at  the  top. 

11.  —  c  =  E.  4,  c.  1.  dot  -f  E.  5  +  E.  4  -f-  E.  2 
4~  E.  3,  c.  1. 

The  width  is  half  a  space,  the  same  as  o.  The  fourth 
element  is  carried  up  and  over,  just  as  if  the  second  prin¬ 
ciple  was  to  be  written.  Then,  instead  of  continuing  down 
the  right  side,  a  dot  is  made  on  the  main  slope,  in  shape 


70 


INSTRUCTION. 


like  a  pear  suspended  by  the  stalk.  Next,  we  retrace  the 
dot  and  the  connecting  line  as  in  o,  and  conclude  with  the 
turn  and  c.  1.  Take  care  that  the  back  of  the  c  is  curved 
like  the  left  side  of  an  oval,  which  it  is.  Be  very  par¬ 
ticular  about  the  dot ;  its  length  should  not  be  more  than 
one  fourth  the  height. 

12.  —  e  =  E.  3,  c.  1.  -f-  E.  5  -f-  E.  4  -f-  E.  2  -J-  E.  3,  c.  1. 

Observe  that  the  third  element  crosses  the  fourth  at 
one  third  the  height,  see  R.  6,  to  form  the  loop.  And  the 
Fifth  is  narrowed  by  the  direction  of  the  Third  in  com¬ 
bining  with  its  right  side.  The  rest  of  the  letter  is  like 
c.  Take  care  that  the  back  of  e  is  made  neither  too 
round  nor  too  straight.  It  should  be  curved  exactly  like 
o  and  c. 

13.  —  r  =  E.  3,  c.  1.  -(-  dot  and  shoulder  -j-  P.  1. 

The  third  element  is  carried  one  fourth  higher  than 
usual,  then  the  dot  is  made  on  the  slope,  as  in  v  (see  v, 
No.  5).  At  the  bottom  of  the  dot,  the  pen  descends  per¬ 
pendicularly  one  fourth  of  the  height,  and  joins  this  line, 
by  means  of  a  slightly  curved  shoulder,  to  the  first  prin¬ 
ciple.  Let  the  little  perpendicular  hair  line,  which  joins 
the  dot  to  the  first  principle,  be  made  without  effort.  It 
will  be  found  to  arise  naturally  from  the  spring  of  the 
pen  after  closing  the  dot.  Take  care  to  avoid  a  clumsy 
shoulder  and  crooked  first  principle. 

14.  — s  =  E.  3,  c.  1.  +  E.  3  +  E.  2  -f  dot  -f  E.  3,  c.  1. 

In  this  letter,  also,  the  first  connecting  line  is  carried  one 
fourth  higher  than  the  space ;  it  is  retraced  by  the  down- 
stroke,  which  on  leaving  it  curves  slightly  to  enable  it  to 
combine  gracefully  with  the  Third  and  Second  Elements, 
the  right  side  of  an  oval.  The  dot  is  made  at  the  con¬ 
necting  line  on  the  main  slope,  one  fourth  of  the  space 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


71 


in  height ;  the  curve  at  the  bottom  is  then  retraced,  and 
the  third  element  added  for  connecting  line.  Observe 
that  the  two  connecting  lines  are  parallel  at  the  slope  of 
35°,  and  the  down-stroke  has  the  main  slope.  The  first 
up-stroke,  E.  3,  is  often  made  too  straight,  and  E.  2  is  not 
drawn  sufficiently  low  to  make  a  good  turn. 

15.  —  p  =  E.  3,  c.  1.  -f  E.  1  +  P.  3. 

The  third  element  is  carried  up  three  spaces  from  the 
base  line,  the  pen  is  stopped,  and  the  straight  line  written 
to  two  spaces  below  the  base  line.  The  shading  begins  one 
third  from  the  top,  and  is  gradually  increased  throughout, 
the  lower  end  the  heaviest.  See  that  the  edge  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  shade  is  parallel  to  the  base  line,  and  that  the 
corners  are  well  cut.  This  is  a  very  difficult  stroke,  and 
will  require  much  practice.  The  pen  is  raised  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  this  part,  and  replaced  on  the  paper  at  the  base  line 
to  form  the  third  principle.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
stem  is  carried  as  far  above  the  first  space  as  it  is  below 
it.  When  the  handwriting  is  very  large,  this  stem  should 
be  shorter. 

16.  —  q  —  E.  4,  c.  1.  P.  4  -)-  E.  1  -(-  E.  2  E.  1  -j-  E.  4,c.  1. 

The  first  part  of  q  is  made  as  that  of  a  (see  No.  9). 
In  the  last  part,  the  down-stroke  is  the  first  element.  The 
shading  begins  from  the  base  line.  The  turn  is  narrower 
than  in  the  letters.  The  up-stroke  is  carried  to  the  base 
line  with  a  very  slight  curve  nearly  parallel  to  the  down- 
stroke,  and  branches  off  into  the  fourth  element,  to  join  u , 
which  always  follows  q  in  words.  The  usual  connecting 
line  of  u  gives  place  to  that  of  q.  In  this  stem,  the  last 
up-stroke  is,  in  fact,  merely  the  return  of  the  pen  at  the 
side  of  the  down-stroke,  instead  of  retracing  it,  as  is  often 
done.  A  similar  stem  is  often  used  for  the  p. 


72 


INSTRUCTION. 


17.  —  t  —  E.  3,  c.  1.  P-  1  -f-  cross. 

The  connecting  line  is  carried  up  from  the  base  line  twa 
and  a  half  spaces,  the  height  of  the  stem ;  it  is  to  be  so 
curved  that  it  can  be  retraced  half  the  height  of  the  letter 
Since  the  stem  is  generally  shaded,  the  difference  between 
the  curve  and  the  straight  line,  as  to  coincidence,  is  lost. 
The  stem  is  crossed  at  one  third  from  the  top  by  a  hori¬ 
zontal  line.  The  directions  for  making  the  stem  of  d  (see 
No.  10)  apply  here. 

18.  —  h  =  P.  5  -f  P.  3. 

These  principles  have  both  been  fully  described.  There 
is  nothing  new  arising  from  their  connection. 

Caution.  —  A  good  deal  of  care  will  be  needed,  when 
this  class  of  letters  is  begun,  to  see  that  the  pupils  do  not 
make  them  crooked  in  the  back,  of  the  wrong  slope,  the 
sides  of  the  loop  dissimilar,  the  loop  swayed  over  at  the 
end,  the  slope  of  the  third  principle  different  from  that  of 
the  fifth. 

19.  —  k  —  h  -{-  loop  =  P.  5  -f-  loop  -]-  P.  3. 

This  additional  loop  is  written  above  the  third  principle 
and  projecting  beyond  to  the  right,  so  that  this  part  is  one 
fourth  of  a  space  higher.  To  write  this  second  part,  begin 
with  the  fourth  element  as  in  h,  carry  it  up  and  over  one 
fourth  higher  than  the  space,  and  beyond  to  the  right  to 
form  the  loop,  which  is  an  incomplete,  inverted  oval,  nearly 
horizontal.  When  the  top  of  the  third  principle  is  reached, 
\  Id  it,  and  the  letter  is  complete. 

20.  —  l  =  P.  5  -f-  P.  1. 

Each  principle  is  shortened  half  a  space,  so  that  the  first 
connecting  line  crosses  according  to  the  rule  at  one  third 
of  the  height ;  and  the  whole  height  is  four  spaces.  See 
Scale  of  Lengths  in  the  plate.  Take  care  that  the  turn  is  not 
made  broad  and  clumsy.  See  Caution,  No.  18. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


73 


21.  —  b  =  l  - j-  termination  of  v. 

The  remarks  on  the  close  of  v  apply  here  so  exactly, 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  them. 

22.  —j  =  E.  3,  c.  1.  +  P.  6  -f  dot. 

Principle  6  has  already  been  fully  described.  Great 

care  must  be  taken  in  writing  this  letter,  that  it  is  not  too 
much  sloped,  too  short,  too  much  curved,  or  too  much 
twisted  under  to  the  left.  The  dot  is  placed  on  the  main 
dope,  one  space  above. 

23.  —g  =  E.  4,  c.  1.  +  P.  4  +  P.  6. 

This  letter  begins  like  a  (see  No.  9),  and  the  sixth  prin¬ 
ciple  is  added.  Observe  the  cautions  under  j,  No.  22. 

24.  —  y  =  P.  3  -j-  P.  6. 

The  same  remarks  apply  in  way  of  caution  as  in  No.  22. 

25.  —  z  =  P.  2  — J—  shoulder  -j-  P.  6. 

This  letter  is  formed  from  the  union  of  the  second  and 
sixth  principles  by  means  of  a  shoulder.  The  top  of  the 
sixth  principle  is  slightly  curved  to  enable  it  to  join  grace¬ 
fully  with  this.  The  length  of  the  loop  is  two  thirds,  as  in 
y.  See  cautions  in  No.  22. 

26.  —  f  —  P.  5  -j-  lower  loop  and  cross. 

The  lower  loop  is  peculiar  to  this  letter.  The  first  ele¬ 
ment  of  the  fifth  principle  is  continued  two  spaces  below 
the  base  line ;  the  turn  is  made  to  the  right  by  the  second 
element  occupying  one  more  space  in  descent,  so  that  the 
part  of  the  letter  below  the  base  line  is  three  spaces.  The 
line  is  then  carried  up,  making  the  loop  below  the  same 
breadth  as  the  upper  one,  crosses  the  main  stem  at  the  base 
hue  for  a  very  short  distance  at  the  same  curve,  then  turns 
directly  to  the  right,  and  is  carried  horizontally  for  the  sec¬ 
ond  connecting  line. 


4 


74 


INSTRUCTION. 


27.  —  Long  s  =  P.  5  -f-  P.  6. 

Each  principle  has  the  first  element  shortened  half  a 
space.  It  must  be  especially  noticed  that  the  line  between 
the  two  loops  is  a  little  less  oblique  than  the  main  slope,  in 
order  that  the  whole  letter  may  be  properly  adjusted  to  the 
6lope. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  FIGURES. 

Rule.  —  The  size  of  the  figures  is  one  space  and  a 
half.  Except  6,  7,  8,  9,  which  are  two  spaces,  the  even 
numbers  6  and  8  extending  half  a  space  above,  and  the 
odd  numbers  7  and  9  half  a  space  below  the  rest. 

1.  The  right  curve  beginning  on  the  base  line,  written 
upwards  to  the  height  of  one  space  and  a  half.  The 
down-stroke  touching  at  the  point,  a  straight  line  on  the 
main  slope,  gradually  increasing  in  shade  to  form  a  square 
base  on  the  line  of  writing. 

2.  Inverted  oval  on  the  main  slope,  shaded  on  the  inner 
curve,  two  thirds  the  height,  terminated  with  the  L-foot, 
of  which  the  hair-line  is  carried  up  one  third  the  height. 
A  line  on  the  slope  should  touch  the  front  of  the  oval 
and  the  left  end  of  the  horizontal  loop.  Height,  one 
space  and  a  half. 

3.  Small  inverted  oval,  shaded  on  the  inner  curve,  one 
third  the  height,  carried  under  to  form  a  little  above  the 
middle  of  the  figure  a  knot,  or  separating  loop,  slanting 
downwards  to  the  left,  to  conform  to  the  lower  oval.  The 
lower  inverted  oval  incomplete,  shaded  on  the  right  side, 
occupying  between  hall’  and  two  thirds  the  height.  Each 
oval  on  the  main  slope.  Height  of  the  figure  one  space 
and  a  half.  If  preferred,  it  may  end  with  a  dot  on  the 
line  of  the  oval. 

4.  Right  curve  very  slight,  having  a  little  more  than 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


Tb 


the  main  slope, .and  written  downwards,  a  hair-line  through¬ 
out.  Bottom  curve  slanting  upwards  to  about  one  fourth 
the  height,  a  hair-line,  crossed  by  a  straight  line,  half  the 
height,  gradually  shaded,  on  the  main  slope.  In  a  well 
formed  figure  the  points  of  the  three  fines  will  be  in  the 
same  straight  fine.  Height,  one  space  and  a  half. 

5.  Straight  hair-line,  half  the  height,  on  the  main  slope. 
Inverted  oval  incomplete,  shaded  on  the  right  side,  at¬ 
tached  to  the  right  side  of  the  straight  fine  ;  its  height 
between  one  half  and  two  thirds  of  the  whole.  Height 
of  the  figure,  one  space  and  a  half.  If  preferred,  it  may 
end  with  a  dot  on  the  fine  of  the  oval. 

6.  Height,  two  spaces  above  the  base  fine.  Left  curve, 
a  hair-line,  terminating  in  a  direct  oval,  half  the  height, 
shaded  on  the  inner  curve ;  both  on  the  main  slope. 

7.  Height,  two  spaces.  The  top  at  one  space  and  a  half 
above  the  base  fine ;  the  tail  extending  half  a  space  below 
it.  The  head,  like  the  dot  and  curve  at  the  close  of  v. 
See  No.  5,  v.  Down-stroke,  a  straight  fine,  gradually 
shaded,  touching  at  the  top,  on  the  main  slope. 

8.  Height,  two  spaces  above  the  base  fine.  Double 
curve  bent  over  at  the  top,  written  downwards,  shade  grad¬ 
ually  increasing,  heaviest  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  curve, 
which  is  less  intense  than  the  upper ;  turn  at  the  bottom, 
and  left  curve  continued,  crossing  at  the  centre  and  ter 
minating  a  short  distance  from  the  commencement  of  the 
first  curve.  The  left  sides  of  the  two  sections  are  on  the 
main  slope. 

9.  Height  and  position  like  7.  First  part,  Principle  4, 
half  the  height,  its  bottom  one  third  from  the  base  line, 
shaded  on  the  left  side.  Down-stroke,  a  straight  line, 
gradually  shaded;  coincides  half  the  height  of  the  Fourth 
Principle  ;  extends  half  a  space  below  the  base  fine.  Both 
on  the  main  slope. 


70 


INSTRUCTION. 


0.  A  direct  oval,  simple,  closed  at  the  top,  shaded  on  the 
left  side.  Height,  one  space  and  a  half.  No  connecting 
line  unless  joined  to  another,  then  like  o. 


SECTION  II. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  CAPITALS. 

The  Principles. 

The  Principles  of  the  Capitals  are  three  in  number. 
See  Plate  I.  The  first  of  these,  which  we  shall  call  the 
Seventh  Principle,  there  being  six  of  the  small  letters,  is 
known  by  several  names,  —  the  Line  of  Beauty,  the  Dou¬ 
ble  Curve,  and  the  Capital-Stem.  The  next,  that  is,  the 
Eighth,  is  the  Direct  Oval.  The  last,  or  Ninth,  is  the 
Inverted  Oval. 

The  Seventh  Principle  is  a  compound  form,  and  is  de¬ 
rived  from  two  similar  ovals,  placed  side  by  side.  See 
Plate  I.  The  upper  and  lower  curve  are  similar,  and  each 
occupies  half  the  length. 

Remark.  —  This  is  the  ideal  Double  Curve.  It  is  modified 
;n  different  letters.  In  some,  the  upper  curve  almost  approaches 
a  straight  line;  in  others,  the  lower  curve  is  intensified.  In 
some  letters  the  slope  is  changed. 

The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  letter  of  which  it  is  a  part  has 
to  be  considered  as  a  whole,  and  an  adjustment  made  to  suit 
the  laws  of  beauty  and  maintain  the  symmetry  of  the  letter. 

The  Eighth  and  Ninth  Principles  are  compound  forms, 
and  are  derived  from  two  similar  and  equal  ovals,  whose 
width  equals  half  the  height,  intersecting  one  another,  so 
that  the  spaces,  measured  on  the  common  short  diameter, 
between  the  sides  of  the  ovals,  the  sides  and  the  diameters, 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


77 


and  the  diameters,  shall  all  be  equal.  See  Plate  I.  Draw 
the  diameters  to  show  these  equal  spaces,  and  the  lines  par¬ 
allel  to  the  shorter  diameter  to  show  the  parallelism  of  the 
position  of  the  two  ovals. 

The  two  left  curves  are  not  parallel.  To  prove  that  they 
are  not,  draw  two  concentric  circles. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once,  that,  in  order  to  have  two  arcs 
of  circles  parallel,  one  of  them  must  be  the  arc  of  a  smaller 
circle.  Draw  two  similar  ovals,  one  within  the  other,  and 
the  same  law  evidently  holds  good.  Observe  that  the  lines 
on  which  the  equal  distances  of  the  curves  are  measured, 
are  at  right  angles  to  the  tangents  of  the  curves  at  any 
point,  and  not  parallel  to  one  another.  Now,  as  the  com¬ 
pound  form  of  the  oval,  which  constitutes  the  Eighth  Prin¬ 
ciple,  is  derived  from  two  similar  and  equal  ovals,  it  is 
evident  that  the  left  curves  cannot  be  parallel.  The 
divergence  increases  in  both  directions  from  the  middle  of 
the  curve,  though  the  difference  is  very  slight.  Do  not  be 
deceived,  because  the  lines  drawn  between  the  two  curves 
parallel  to  the  shorter  diameter  are  equal.  They  are  not 
in  the  right  direction  to  have  the  distance  between  the 
curves  measured  on  them.  If  any  doubt  is  still  enter¬ 
tained,  draw  two  equal  circles  intersecting  one  another,  and 
the  divergence  of  the  curves  from  parallelism  will  be  im¬ 
mediately  manifest.  In  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Principles 
the  left  curves  are  precisely  similar,  and  therefore  not 
'parallel. 

The  Eighth  Principle,  or  Direct  Oval,  Plate  I.,  begins  at 
the  top  of  the  left-hand  oval,  descends  and  follows  the  same 
to  the  upper  point  of  intersection,  and  there  runs  into  the 
left  curve  of  the  other  oval.  The  distance  between  the  left 
curves  is  one  fourth  the  width  of  the  oval  in  the  letter  0 ; 
in  all  other  letters,  one  third. 


INSTRUCTION. 


7ft 


The  Ninth  Principle,  or  Inverted  Oval,  is  derived  from 
the  same  intersecting  ovals.  See  Plate  I.  It  begins  at  the 
bottom  of  the  left  side  of  the  first  oval,  ascends  and  follows 
the  same  to  the  lower  point  of  intersection,  and  there  runs 
into  the  left  curve  of  the  other  oval.  Modifications  will  be 
noticed  in  the  analysis  of  the  letters. 


THE  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

General  Rules. 

Rule  1.  The  height  of  the  capitals  is  four  spaces,  the 
same  as  the  loop  letters. 

Rule  2.  The  Seventh  Principle  as  Capital-Stem  in 
fourteen  letters,  A,  B ,  F,  G,  I,  K,  M,  X,  P,  P,  S,  T, 
X,  Y,  is  ended  with  a  dot  in  our  elementary  books.  The 
turn  is  the  bottom  of  the  oval  from  which  the  lower  curve 
of  the  stem  is  derived.  The  dot  is  half  the  height  of  a 
space,  and  is  always  made  on  the  main  slope.  See  Plate 
II. 

Rule  3.  The  Third  Principle  of  the  small  letters  begins 
F,  //,  K,  T,  V,  W,  Z.  It  starts  one  third  the  height 
of  the  letter  from  the  base  line,  its  centre  is  one  third  from 
the  top  of  the  letter,  and  the  distance  of  its  main  stroke 
from  the  stem  is  the  same  as  its  height,  which  is  one  space. 

Rule  4.  The  Eighth  Principle,  or  Direct  Oval,  is  in  the 
< K  the  whole  height ;  as  termination  in  the  D,  four  fifths  ; 
in  the  G ,  E,  B,  K,  M,  B,  U,  X,  one  half ;  in  L,  Q,  Z,  one 
third.  In  0,  the  distance  between  the  left  curves  equals 
one  fourth  the  width  ;  in  all  other  letters,  one  third. 

Rule  5.  The  Ninth  Principle,  or  Inverted  Oval,  as  a 
commencement  in  B,  P,  Q,  B,  U,  X,  Y,  is  tw'o  thirds  the 
height ;  as  a  termination  in  B,  one  half. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


79 


Rule  6.  Two  shades  should  never  come  next  to  one 
another ;  and  the  heaviest  part  of  a  shade  should  be  in  the 
middle  of  the  curve. 

Rule  7.  The  proportions  of  the  ovals  are  to  be  meas¬ 
ured  on  their  diameters ;  of  the  letters,  on  their  vertical 
height. 

Rule  8.  All  ovals  are  on  the  main  slope. 

Index.  A,  2  —  B,  8  —  C,  22  —  D.  20  —  E,  23  —  F, 
6  —  G,  24  —  H,  15  —  I,  13  — /,  14  — iT,  16  — Z,  12  — 
M,  4  —  A,  3  —  (9,  1  —  P,  7  —  Q,  21  —  E,  9  —  S,  11  — 
T,5—U,  26  —  V,  17  —  W,  18  — X,  10  — Y,  25  —  Z,  19. 

1.  — 0.  We  begin  with  this  letter,  because  it  embraces 
all  the  curves  used  in  the  formation  of  capitals.  It  is  the 
eighth  principle  of  full  size  ;  that  is,  its  height  is  four  spaces. 
Its  width  measured  on  its  short  diameter  (see  R.  7)  equals 
half  its  length.  The  distance  between  the  left  curves 
equals  one  fourth  the  width,  measured  on  the  short  diam¬ 
eter  (see  R.  7).  Its  long  diameter  is  on  the  main  slope. 

Caution.  Round  the  oval  carefully.  Do  not  flatten 
the  curves.  The  greatest  danger  is  at  the  top  of  the  first. 

2.  —  A.  This  letter  has  three  parts.  The  first  part 
(Rule  2)  is  generally  written  upwards,  the  upper  curve 
very  slight.  The  second  part  is  very  slightly  curved  to 
one  third  from  the  top,  then  it  is  a  straight  line,  of  which 
the  shade  gradually  increases.  The  third  part  is  the  cross. 
It  starts  from  the  right  foot,  coincides  for  half  a  space, 
crosses  to  the  left  and  forms  a  loop,  the  centre  of  which  is 
one  third  the  height  of  the  letter,  and  on  the  double  curve 
line.  A  line  from  the  top  through  the  centre  of  the  let¬ 
ter  would  be  on  the  main  slope ;  hence  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  second  part,  or  down-stroke,  has  a  little  less  tl  ^ 


80 


INSTRUCTION. 


the  main  slope,  the  first  part  a  little  more.  Observe  that 
the  width  of  the  letter  gradually  increases  from  the  top  to 
the  base,  and  regulate  the  first  up-stroke  accordingly. 

Cautions.  Take  care  that  the  seventh  principle  is 
very  slightly  curved  in  the  upper  part,  or  the  top  of  the 
letter  will  be  very  clumsy.  Do  not  let  the  left  foot 
“  sprawl  ”  out ;  observe  carefully  R.  2  in  its  formation. 
Graduate  the  shade  accurately. 

3.  —  JV.  This  letter  consists  of  three  parts.  The  first 
two  are  the  same  as  in  A,  except  in  slope;  at  the  bottom 
of  the  second,  a  very  narrow  turn  is  made,  and  a  curve 
carried  up  from  it,  parallel  to  the  first  up-stroke,  four  fifths 
the  height  of  the  letter.  The  spaces  on  a  horizontal  line 
across  the  middle  are  equal.  The  shade  begins  as  in  A, 
and  is  heaviest  just  before  the  turn.  A  line  drawn  through 
the  centre  of  the  letter,  dividing  it  into  two  equal  lateral 
halves,  would  be  on  the  main  slope.  Observe  the  gradual 
increase  and  diminution  of  width  in  the  two  sections.  See 
the  cautions  on  A. 

4.  —  M  This  letter  has  four  parts.  The  first  three 
are  the  same  as  JW,  except  that  the  third  stroke  is  carried 
to  the  full  height.  The  fourth  part  is  curved  from  the  top, 
and  closes  with  the  direct  oval  (see  R.  4).  Observe  the 
shades  carefully.  A  line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the 
letter  into  equal  lateral  halves,  would  be  on  the  main  slope. 
The  widths  at  the  top  and  the  two  at  the  base  are  equal. 
On  a  horizontal  line  through  the  middle  there  are  three 
equal  spaces. 

5.  —  T  has  two  parts.  Its  commencement  is  the  third 
principle  (see  R.  3).  Its  stem  is  the  seventh  principle  (see 
R.  2)  on  the  main  slope.  The  strongest  curve  is  in  the 
lower  section.  There  is  no  shade  except  in  the  third 
principle  and  dot.  Care  is  needed  in  making  P.  3. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


81  . 


6.  —  F  is  T  crossed  in  tlie  middle  by  a  small  double 
curve  placed  horizontally,  which  is  itself  crossed  by  a  small 
straight  line  on  the  main  slope. 

7.  —  P.  This  letter  has  two  parts,  the  stem  and  the 
cap.  For  the  stem,  see  R.  2.  It  is  on  the  main  slope. 
The  cap  begins  with  the  inverted  oval,  two  thirds  the 
height,  R  5,  on  the  main  slope,  crossing  the  stem  at  right 
angles,  the  highest  point  of  the  cap  being  in  the  middle  of 
the  line  between  the  section  of  the  oval  and  the  stem ;  it  is 
continued  with  the  right  curve,  and  terminates  on  the  stem 
in  a  dot  at  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  For  important 
measurements,  see  Plate.  On  the  short  diameter  of  the 
first  oval  produced  to  the  stem,  there  are  four  equal  spaces ; 
on  a  parallel  line  from  the  left  curve  of  the  oval  crossing 
the  stem  to  the  other  curve,  two  equal  spaces.  A  line  on 
the  main  slope  through  the  oval  would  pass  through  the 
dot.  The  inverted  oval  is  higher  than  the  cap. 

8.  —  B.  The  stem  and  the  cap  are  like  P,  only  that  the 
right  side  is  carried  down  one  third  instead  of  a  half,  and 
the  dot  is  omitted.  The  separation  between  the  upper  and 
lower  sections  of  the  right  side  is  made  by  a  small  horizon¬ 
tal  loop.  The  lower  curve  ends  with  the  inverted  oval, 
see  R.  5.  A  straight  line  drawn  on -the  main  slope,  touch¬ 
ing  the  right  side  of  the  upper  curve,  would  pass  through 
the  centre  of  the  lower  oval ;  the  lower  right  curve,  there¬ 
fore,  projects  beyond  the  upper.  For  measurements,  see 
Plate.  Across  the  first  oval  to  stem  on  its  short  diameter 
produced,  there  are  four  equal  spaces  ;  similarly  as  to  the 
last  oval,  three.  On  a  parallel  line  from  the  right  side  of 
the  first  oval  to  the  right  side  of  the  upper  lobe,  there  are 
two  equal  spaces. 

9.  —  R  is  like  B  as  far  as  the  separating  loop,  which 
is  here  made  at  right  angles  to  the  main  slope.  After 

4* 


F 


82 


INSTRUCTION. 


that,  the  descending  curve  is  turned  back  to  finish  with 
the  direct  oval  (see  R.  4.)  For  important  measurements, 
see  Plate.  Across  each  of  the  two  ovals  to  the  stem  or. 
their  short  diameters  produced,  there  are  four  equal  spaces. 
On  a  parallel  line  from  the  right  side  of  the  first  oval  to 
the  right  side  of  the  upper  lobe,  there  are  two  equal  spaces. 
A  line  on  the  main  slope  through  the  oval  would  pass 
through  the  dot. 

10.  —  X.  The  capital-stem,  R.  2,  is  made  first,  writ¬ 
ten  downwards.  Then  the  inverted  oval,  R.  5,  and  di¬ 
rect  oval,  R.  4,  joined  by  a  straight  line  on  the  main 
slope.  The  two  parts  of  the  letter  coincide  through  half 
the  height,  commencing  at  one  fourth  from  the  top.  For 
measurements,  see  Plate.  Across  the  ovals,  as  in  JR,  there 
are  four  equal  spaces.  The  remark  on  the  dot  applies 
also. 

11.  —  S.  Begin  from  base  line  with  the  right  curve 
on  the  slope  of  the  connecting  lines,  to  half  the  height  of 
the  letter,  then  form  a  loop  on  the  main  slope,  half  the 
height,  complete  a  double  curve,  and  end  with  a  dot  on 
the  commencing  line.  The  dot  is  half  a  space  high  and 
on  the  main  slope.  The  double  curve  is  the  essential 
part  of  this  letter.  Notice  how  the  loop  is  formed  on 
the  upper  part,  and  the  greater  intensity  of  curve  in  the 
lower  part.  Let  the  shade  begin  just  below  the  loop,  and 
be  nicely  graduated.  Give  much  attention  to  the  lower 
turn  and  the  dot.  An  oblique  line  through  the  loop  length¬ 
wise  has  similar  curves  formed  by  the  double  curve,  on 
the  upper  left  and  lower  right  side. 

12.  —  L.  This  letter  begins  like  S,  but  the  double 
curve,  instead  of  making  a  turn  to  end  with  a  dot,  is  car¬ 
ried  to  the  left  to  form  a  horizontal  loop,  which  rests  on 
the  base  line  and  whose  thickness  is  half  a  space ;  it  de« 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


83 


scends  on  the  right  side  to  touch  the  base  line  at  precisely 
the  same  distance  from  the  crossing  as  on  the  left  side,  and 
ends  with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4,  incomplete.  The  lower 
curve  of  the  stem  is  stronger  than  the  upper.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  upper  curve  of  the  horizontal  loop  and 
the  cui've  to  the  right  which  touches  the  base  line  together 
form  a  double  curve.  The  right  section  only  of  the  direct 
oval  is  used.  The  shade  begins  as  in  S  below  the  loop. 
The  bottom  of  this  letter,  which  may  be  termed  the  Z-foot, 
occurs  also  in  D,  Q,  and  one  form  of  Z.  Take  care  that 
the  direct  oval  is  made  on  the  main  slope.  For  the  slope, 
see  Plate,  and  remarks  on  S. 

13.  —  Z  Begin  with  the  left  curve  at  the  height  of 
one  space  from  the  base  line,  carry  it  round  to  the  right  to 
form  a  circular  loop,  and  continue  the  curve  to  the  height 
of  the  letter.  The  second  part  is  the  capital-stem  and 
dot,  R.  2,  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  circular  loop, 
whose  centre  is  also  in  the  middle  of  the  stem.  Take  care 
that  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  not  made  too  broad. 
Modify  the  curve  gently  to  accord  with  the  upper  part 
of  the  stem. 

14.  —  J.  This  letter  begins  as  the  I,  but  the  circular 
loop  is  not  so  high ;  its  lower  curve  is  one  space  from  the 
base  line,  and  the  double  curve  is  carried  down  to  form 
a  loop,  the  same  length  as  j,  three  spaces  below  the  line. 
The  left  curve  of  the  loop  crosses  at  the  base  line.  A  line 
through  the  length  of  the  loop  should  pass  through  the 
upper  part  of  the  letter.  Notice  the  slight  intensity  of 
the  curve  in  botli  parts  of  the  stem.  The  heaviest  shade 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  right  side  of  the  loop.  The  loop 
is  one  space  wide. 

15.  —  H.  The  commencement  is  the  third  principle,  R.  3. 
Next,  the  double  curve  with  a  loop,  the  hair  stroke  of 


84 


INSTRUCTION. 


which  is  carried  across  and  upwards,  on  the  same  slope,  tc 
form  another  loop  similar  to  the  first ;  this  side  is  finished 
with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4.  The  first  section  is  a  little 
lower  than  the  second,  which  is  the  full  height.  The  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  hair  line  between  the  two  stems  is  half  the 
height  of  the  letter ;  hence  each  loop  is  a  little  less  than 
half  the  height.  An  oblique  line  through  the  centre,  divid¬ 
ing  the  central  space  equally,  would  be  on  the  main  slope. 
The  width  between  the  down-strokes  at  the  middle  is  one 
space.  The  second 'loop  is  longer  than  the  first. 

16.  —  K.  The  first  part  is  T,  No.  5.  The  second  part 
consists  of  the  left  curve  turned  back  to  make  a  small 
separating  loop,  then  continued  symmetrically  with  the 
upper  part,  and  closed  with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4.  The 
separating  curve  is  inclined  as  in  R ,  and  is  about  one  third 
the  height  of  the  letter  from  the  top.  The  slope  is  the 
same  as  in  H. 

17.  —  V.  Commencement,  R.  3.  Next,  down-stroke 
straight,  shaded  heaviest  near  the  turn,  which  is  narrow, 
like  those  of  the  small  letters.  Then,  up-stroke  parallel  to 
previous  one,  branching  off  into  the  left  curve,  and  ter¬ 
minated  at  the  same  height  as  the  top  of  the  introductory 
part.  An  oblique  line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the 
letter  into  two  equal  parts,  would  be  on  the  main  slope. 

18.  —  IF.  Commencement,  R.  3.  Next,  double  curve 
down  ending  on  the  base  line  ;  then,  double  curve  up 
with  more  slope.  The  second  down-stroke  is  like  the  sec¬ 
ond  of  A,  No.  2,  very  slightly  curved  one  third,  and  then 
straight.  The  final  stroke  is  the  left  curve,  as  in  jV.  The 
spaces  on  a  horizontal  line  drawn  through  the  middle  of  the 
letter  are  equal.  See  Plate.  A  line  from  the  middle 
point  at  the  top  through  the  centre  of  the  letter  would  be 
on  the  main  slope. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 


85 


19.  —  Z.  Commencement,  R.  3.  The  down-stroke  and 
foot  like  A,  No.  12,  except  that  the  lower  curve  of  the 
stem  is  a  little  less  intense.  It  has  the  main  slope. 

20.  —  D.  This  letter  begins  with  the  double  curve,  a  lit 
tie  below  the  height  of  the  letter;  its  foot  is  like  that  of 
L,  No.  12,  until  it  touches  the  base  line  on  the  right  side, 
whence  it  is  carried  up  as  the  right  side  of  an  oval,  crosses 
the  stem  near  its  top,  and  ends  with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4. 
Especial  attention  is  requested  to  the  illustration  in  the 
Plate.  The  spaces  as  marked  on  the  lines  are  all  equal. 
A  line  drawn  on  the  main  slope,  touching  the  second  curve 
of  the  finishing  oval,  would  pass  through  the  end  of  the 
horizontal  loop.  The  highest  part  of  the  letter  is  well  in 
front  of  the  stem. 

21.  —  Q.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval,  R.  5,  and 
end  like  L,  No.  12.  The  oval  is  on  the  main  slope.  For 
measurements,  see  Plate. 

22.  —  C.  Begin  with  the  right  curve  from  the  base  line 
to  half  the  height ;  next,  make  a  loop  half  the  height ;  end 
with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4.  Take  care  that  the  loop  does 
not  pitch  over  too  much.  It  necessarily  has  more  than 
the  main  slope. 

23.  —  E.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  a  little  distance 
from  the  base  line,  carry  it  two  thirds  high,  and  make  a 
loop  one  third ;  continue  the  curve  to  form  a  small  sepa¬ 
rating  nearly  horizontal  loop  to  the  right,  and  close  with 
the  direct  oval,  R.  4.  The  separating  loop  is  a  little  in¬ 
clined  down  to  the  right,  to  correspond  to  the  lower  oval. 
Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  illustration  of  this 
letter  in  the  Plate. 

24.  —  G.  Begin  with  the  right  curve  ;  then,  a  loop  two 
thirds  the  height  of  the  letter  ;  continue  the  down-stroke  as 
the  bottom  of  an  oval,  whose  width  is  twice  that  of  the 


86 


INSTRUCTION. 


loop,  the  bottom  of  the  turn  being  one  fourth  from  the  base 
line.  End  with  a  double  curve  and  dot,  R.  2  ;  the  double 
curve  is  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  Both  parts  of  the 
letter  are  on  the  main  slope.  A  line  through  the  length  of 
the  loop  would  pass  through  the  dot. 

25.  —  T.  This  letter  begins  with  the  inverted  oval, 
R.  5,  continues  like  third  principle,  to  one  fourth  from  the 
base  line,  but  the  lower  turn  much  narrwer  than  the  upper, 
and  ends  with  the  double  curve  and  dot,  R.  2 ;  height,  two 
thirds.  For  measurements,  see  Plate.  On  the  short  diam¬ 
eter  produced  to  the  stem,  we  find  equal  spaces  occurring 
thus,  between  the  lines  of  the  letter,  one,  two,  one,  two. 

26.  —  U.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval,  R.  5,  continue 
as  T,  except  that  it  rests  on  the  base  line.  The  second 
part  is  a  straight  line  ending  with  the  direct  oval,  R.  4. 
The  top  of  the  second  part  lower  than  that  of  the  first. 
Its  width  is  two  spaces.  For  measurements,  see  Plate  and 
remarks  on  T. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 


87 


CHAPTER  IX. 

kt 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 

Classification  relates  to  the  arrangement  of  the  letters 
in  groups,  according  to  their  possession  of  common  forms. 
Since  every  letter  must  have  something  peculiar  to  distin¬ 
guish  it  from  others  which  have  a  common  principle,  classi¬ 
fication  includes  a  description  of  this  peculiarity,  which  is 
termed  the  characteristic. 

Classes  of  Small  Letters. 

The  most  natural  and  convenient  division  of  the  small 
letters  seems  to  give  four  classes.  Some  letters  will  be 
found  to  belong  to  two  of  them.  The  reason  of  the  posi¬ 
tion  here  assigned  is  obvious. 

First  Class.  —  Those  letters  which  consist  chiefly  of 
the  first,  second,  and  third  principles,  i,  u,  n .  m,  v,  w,  x. 

Second  Class.  —  Those  formed  from  the  oval,  or  the 
fourth  principle,  o,  a,  c,  e. 

These  two  classes  contain  all  the  short  letters  except 
two. 

Third  Class.  —  Those  which  have  stems  formed  of  the 
first  element,/),  q,  t,  d.  These  are  called  the  Stem  Letters. 

Fourth  Class. — Those  which  have  the  fifth  and 
sixth  principles,  h,  k,  l,  b,j,  g,  g,  z,f  long  s.  These  are 
the  Loop  Letters. 

Besides  these,  there  are  two  letters  whose  forms  are 
anomalous,  r,  s. 


88 


INSTRUCTION. 


Characteristics. 

The  characteristics  of  the  letters  are  as  follows :  — 

In  the  First  Class.  Of  i,  one  straight  line  with  turn  at 
the  bottom  and  the  dot  above  it ;  —  of  u,  two  straight  lines 
with  turns  at  the  bottom  ;  —  of  n,  two  straight  lines  with 
turns  at  the  top  ;  —  of  to,  three  straight  lines  with  turns  at 
the  top  ;  —  of  v,  its  two  nearly  parallel  sides  and  the  dot ;  — 
of  w,  its  alternately  parallel  sides  and  the  dot ;  —  of  x,  the 
straight  line  forming  the  cross. 

In  the  Second  Class.  Of  o,  the  oval ;  —  of  a,  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  the  first  principle ;  —  of  c,  the  dot ;  —  of  e,  the 
loop. 

In  the  Third-Class.  Of  p,  the  third  principle  affixed ;  — 
of  q,  the  fourth  principle  prefixed  ;  —  of  t,  the  cross  ;  —  of 
d,  the  fourth  principle  prefixed  to  the  Astern  without  the 
cross. 

In  the  Fourth  Class.  Of  h,  the  third  principle  af¬ 
fixed  ;  —  of  Jc,  the  knot  or  kink ;  —  of  l,  the  turn  at  the 
bottom  ;  —  of  b,  the  parallel  sides  of  the  lower  part  and  the 
dot ;  —  of  j,  the  dot ;  —  of  g,  the  fourth  principle  pre¬ 
fixed  ;  of  y,  the  third  principle  prefixed ;  —  of  z,  the  sec¬ 
ond  principle  and  shoulder ;  in  the  other  form,  the  zig¬ 
zag  ;  —  of  f  the  knot. 

In  the  anomalous  letters.  Of  r,  the  dot  and  shoulder  ;  — 
of  s,  the  twist  on  the  right  side. 

Order  of  Introduction. 

The  order  in  which  the  small  letters  are  introduced  in 
our  copy-books  is  this  (see  Plate)  :  i,  u,  n,  to,  v,  w,  x,  o,  a,  d, 
c,  e,  r,  s,  p ,  q,  t,  h,  k,  l,  b,j,  g,  y,  z,f  long  s. 

The  beautiful  harmony  and  progressiveness  of  this  order 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  statement  of  the  principles, 
and  the  letters  in  which  they  occur. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 


89 


Short  Letters. 

Prin.  1,  i,  u. 

Prin.  2,  w,  m. 

Prin.  3,  n,  m,  v,  w,  x. 

Prin.  4  and  Oval,  o,  a,  ( d ,)  c ,  e. 

Irregular.  Prin.  1,  r.  Oval,  s. 

Remark.  —  The  letter  d  is  introduced  here  because  of  its 
great  similarity  to  the  a  ;  the  only  difference  being  the  greater 
length  of  the  first  element  in  the  first  principle. 

Stem  Letters. 

Element  1,  p,  q,  t,d. 

Loop  Letters. 

Above  the  line,  Prin.  5,  h,  k,  l,  b. 

Below  the  line,  Prin.  6,  j,  g,  y ,  z. 

Above  and  below,  Prin.  5  and  6,  f  long  s. 


Occurrence  of  Principles  and  Elements. 


The  number  of  letters  in  which  the  different  principles, 
&c.  occur  is  as  follows.  We  find 

Prin.  1  in  9  letters,  i,  u,  w,  a,  r,  t,  d,  l,  b. 


Prin.  2  in  3 
Prin.  3  in  9 
Prin.  4  in  4 
Prin.  5  in  6 
Prin.  6  in  5 
El.  1  in  2 
Oval  in  4 


n,  m,  z. 

n,  m,  v,  w,  x,  p,  h,  k,  y. 
a,  d,  q,  g. 

h,  k,  l,  b,  f  long  s.  * 
j,  9 ,  V,  z,  long  s. 

V »  9- 

0 2  Cj  s» 


Anomalous  form,  lower  loop  of  f 


88 


INSTRUCTION. 


Characteristics. 

The  characteristics  of  the  letters  are  as  follows  :  — 

In  the  First  Class.  Of  i,  one  straight  line  with  turn  at 
the  bottom  and  the  dot  above  it ;  —  of  u,  two  straight  lines 
with  turns  at  the  bottom  ;  —  of  n,  two  straight  lines  with 
turns  at  the  top  ;  —  of  m,  three  straight  lines  with  turns  at 
the  top  ;  —  of  v,  its  two  nearly  parallel  sides  and  the  dot ;  — 
of  w,  its  alternately  parallel  sides  and  the  dot ;  —  of  x,  the 
straight  line  forming  the  cross. 

In  the  Second  Class.  Of  o,  the  oval ;  —  of  a,  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  the  first  principle ;  —  of  c,  the  dot ;  —  of  e,  the 
loop. 

In  the  Third  Class.  Of  p,  the  third  principle  affixed ;  — 
of  q ,  the  fourth  principle  prefixed  ;  —  of  t,  the  cross  ;  —  of 
d,  the  fourth  principle  prefixed  to  the  <-stem  without  the 
cross. 

In  the  Fourth  Class.  Of  h,  the  third  principle  af¬ 
fixed  ;  —  of  k,  the  knot  or  kink  ;  —  of  l ,  the  turn  at  the 
bottom  ;  —  of  b,  the  parallel  sides  of  the  lower  part  and  the 
dot ;  —  of  j,  the  dot ;  —  of  g,  the  fourth  principle  pre¬ 
fixed  ;  of  y,  the  third  principle  prefixed  ;  —  of  z,  the  sec¬ 
ond  principle  and  shoulder ;  in  the  other  form,  the  zig¬ 
zag  ;  —  of  f,  the  knot. 

In  the  anomalous  letters.  Of  r,  the  dot  and  shoulder  ;  — 
of  s,  the  twist  on  the  right  side. 

Order  of  Introduction. 

The  order  in  which  the  small  letters  are  introduced  in 
our  copy-books  is  this  (see  Plate)  :  i,  u,  n,  m,  v,  w,  x,  o,  a,  d, 
r,  e,  r,  s,  p,  q,  t,  h,  k,  l,  b,j,  g,  y,  z,f  long  s. 

The  beautiful  harmony  and  progressiveness  of  this  order 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  statement  of  the  principles, 
and  the  letters  in  which  they  occur. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 


89 


Short  Letters. 

Prin.  1,  i,  u. 

Prin.  2,  n ,  m. 

Prin.  3,  n,  m,  v,  w,  x 

Prin.  4  and  Oval,  o,  a,  ( d ,)  c,  e. 

Irregular.  Prin.  1,  r.  Oval,  s. 

Remark.  —  The  letter  d  is  introduced  here  because  of  its 
great  similarity  to  the  a  ;  the  only  difference  being  the  greater 
length  of  the  first  element  in  the  first  principle. 

Stem  Letters. 

Elqpient  1,  p,  q,  t,  d. 

Loop  Letters. 

Above  the  line,  Prin.  5,  h,  k,  l,  b. 

Below  the  line,  Prin.  6,  j,  g,  y,  z. 

Above  and  below,  Prin.  5  and  6,  f  long  s. 


Occurrence  of  Principles  and  Elements. 


The  number  of  letters  in  which  the  different  principles, 
&c.  occur  is  as  follows.  We  find 

Prin.  1  in  9  letters,  i,  u,  w,  a,  r,  t,  d,  l,  b. 


Prin.  2  in  3 
Prin.  3  in  9 
Prin.  4  in  4 
Prin.  5  in  6 
Prin.  6  in  5 
El.  1  in  2 
Oval  in  4 
Anomalous  form,  lower  loop  of  f. 


a 

« 

U 

u 

« 

a 

u 


n ,  m,  z. 

n,  m,  v,  w,  x,  p,  h,  k,  y. 
a,  d ,  q,  g. 
h,  k,  l,  b,  f  long  s. 
j,  ff,  V,  z,  long  s. 


02 


INSTRUCTION. 


The  horizontal  loop,  or  Z-foot,  is  found  in  four  letters,  Z, 
D,  Q,  Z. 

The  first  element,  very  slightly  curved  to  one  third  from 
the  top,  is  found  in  A,  JV,  M,  W;  straight  throughout,  and 
closed  by  a  turn,  in  V. 


COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS. 


93 


CHAPTER  X. 

COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS. 

Combination  treats  of  the  arrangement  of  letters  in 
words  at  proper  distances.  This  is  generally  spoken  of  as 
Spacing.  It  is  effected  by  the  connecting  lines  of  the  two 
letters  running  into  one  another,  and  thus  forming  one  line, 
which  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Combining  Line. 

Good  taste  requires  that  the  letters  in  a  word  should 
look  about  the  same  distance  apart ;  in  other  words,  that 
the  space  on  the  line  which  the  word  occupies  should  be 
evenly  filled.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  writing  will  look 
“  patchy,”  —  crowded  in  one  place,  scattered  in  another. 
We  propose,  therefore,  to  give  rules  for  these  distances, 
and  to  point  out  the  reasons  on  which  they  depend. 

The  controlling  influences  which  govern  them  are  the 
nature  of  the  lines  to  be  combined,  and  the  means  by  which 
the  combination  is  made.  Sometimes  it  will  be  seen  that 
Increase  of  distance  is  merely  nominal,  depending  on  the 
situation  of  the  side  to  or  from  which  the  measurement  is 
made.  The  points  for  the  measurements  are  the  centres 
of  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  letters. 

Every  letter  ends  with  a  straight  line,  having  a  diagonal 
connecting  line  with  a  turn,  as  w,  or  without  a  turn,  as  j, 
q  ;  or  is  an  oval  with  a  horizontal  connecting  line ;  or  is 
open  on  the  right  side,  as  c  and  e.  Every  letter  begins 
with  a  straight  line,  having  a  diagonal  connecting  line  with¬ 
out  a  turn,  as  u ,  h ,  p,  or  with  a  turn,  as  n,  y ;  or  is  an 
oval,  as  o,  a  ;  or  is  open  on  the  left  side,  as  s,  in  which  the 


94 


INSTRUCTION. 


up-stroke  is  merely  the  connecting  line.  The  combinations 
of  these  different  classes  of  letters  may  be  determined  by 
the  following  rules  :  — 

Rule  1.  When  two  straight  lines,  or  a  straight  line 
and  an  oval,  are  united  by  one  turn  and  a  combining  line, 
or  by  a  combining  line  only,  the  distance  between  them  is 
one  space,  the  height  of  o  ;  as,  ii,  ni,  it ,  ih,  ip  ;  io,  ie  ;  gi , 
go,  qu ,  &c.  Between  is,  us,  &c.  the  distance  is  really  the 
same,  because  the  width  of  s  equals  that  of  o  ;  but  since  we 
have  to  measure  to  the  right  side,  it  is  a  space  and  a  half. 

Remark.  —  In  it,  ih,  ip,  where  the  combining  line  joins  the 
straight  line  at  one  half,  one  third,  and  the  top,  respectively, 
the  distance  is  kept  by  giving  less  slope  to  the  combining  line. 
In  gi,  qu,  &c.  the  same  means  are  used. 

Rule  2.  When  two  straight  lines  are  united  by  two 
turns  and  a  combining  line,  the  distance  is  one  space  and  a 
half ;  as,  in,  ir,  un,  my,  pn,  &c. 

Remark.  —  This  gives  room  enough  to  make  the  turns 
©  © 

properly,  and  the  line  crossing  diagonally  prevents  the  distance 
from  seeming  too  wide. 

Rule  3.  When  two  ovals,  or  an  oval  and  a  straight 
line,  are  united  by  a  combining  line  only,  or  by  a  combining 
line  and  turn,  the  distance  is  three  quarters  of  a  space  ;  as, 
oo,  oc,  od,  ha,  ve,  wo  ;  oi,  at,  oh,  op,  vi  ;  on,  vn,  &c.  The 
last  part  of  h,  v,  w  is  equivalent  to  the  oval.'  In  os  the  dis¬ 
tance  is  really  the  same,  since  s  is  the  width  of  o ;  but  as 
we  measure  to  the  right  side,  it  is  a  little  more  than  one 
space. 

Remark.  —  A  full  space  for  the  distance  mentioned  in  the 
first  part  of  this  rule  would  be  too  much,  because,  as  the  con¬ 
necting  line  is  horizontal,  there  is  nothing  to  disguise  it.  We 
have,  therefore,  to  bring  the  main  lines  nearer. 

Rule  4.  When  core  precedes  a  letter  beginning  like 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 


91 


Occurrence  of  Principles. 

The  capital-stem,  or  line  of  beauty,  ending  with  a  dot, 
occurs  in  fourteen  letters,  A,  N,  M,  T,  F,  P,  B,  B,  X,  S, 
/,  K,  G,  T. 

The  capital-stem  is  written,  — 

Generally  upwards  and  light,  in  three  letters,  A,  X,  M. 
Downwards  and  light,  in  eleven  letters,  T,  F,  P,  B,  R,  X, 

H,  K,  TV,  Z,  D. 

Downwards,  light,  and  short,  in  two  letters,  G,  Y. 
Downwards  and  shaded  in  the  lower  curve,  in  three  letters, 

I,  L ,  S. 

Downwards,  prolonged  into  a  loop,  shaded  on  the  right 
side,  in  one  letter,  J. 

The  third  principle  of  small  letters  is  used  for  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  seven  letters,  T,  F,  H,  K \  V,  TV,  Z. 

The  direct  oval,  when  of  full  size,  forms  the  0. 

Four  fifths  of  the  vertical  height,  it  is  the  end  or  front 
of  D. 

Half  the  height,  it  terminates  eight  letters,  M,  R,  X,  H, 
K,  0,  E,  U. 

One  third  the  height,  it  ends  L,  Z,  Q. 

The  inverted  oval,  two  thirds  the  height,  commences 
seven  letters,  P,  B,  R,  X,  Q,  IT,  Y. 

Half  the  height,  it  ends  one  letter,  B. 

A  curve  and  circular  loop  are  used  for  the  head  of  I,  J. 

The  loop,  half  the  height  of  the  letter,  is  used  in  five  let¬ 
ters,  S,  Ij,  J,  H,  O  ;  one  third  the  height,  in  E ;  two  in  G. 

r 

The  knot,  kink,  or  small  separating  loop,  is  found  in  three 
letters,  B,  R,  K ;  turned  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  E. 


INSTRUCTION. 


i>2 


The  horizontal  loop,  or  Z-foot,  is  found  in  four  letters,  Z, 
D,  Q,  Z. 

The  first  element,  very  slightly  curved  to  one  third  from 
the  top,  is  found  in  A,  iV,  M,  W ;  straight  throughout,  and 
closed  by  a  turn,  in  V. 


COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS. 


93 


CHAPTER  X. 

COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS. 

Combination  treats  of  the  arrangement  of  letters  in 
words  at  proper  distances.  This  is  generally  spoken  of  as 
Spacing.  It  is  effected  by  the  connecting  lines  of  the  two 
letters  running  into  one  another,  and  thus  forming  one  line, 
which  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Combining  Line. 

Good  taste  requires  that  the  letters  in  a  word  should 
look  about  the  same  distance  apart ;  in  other  words,  that 
the  space  on  the  line  which  the  word  occupies  should  be 
evenly  filled.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  writing  will  look 
“  patchy,”  —  crowded  in  one  place,  scattered  in  another. 
We  propose,  therefore,  to  give  rules  for  these  distances, 
and  to  point  out  the  reasons  on  which  they  depend. 

The  controlling  influences  which  govern  them  are  the 
nature  of  the  lines  to  be  combined,  and  the  means  by  which 
the  combination  is  made.  Sometimes  it  will  be  seen  that 
increase  of  distance  is  merely  nominal,  depending  on  the 
situation  of  the  side  to  or  from  which  the  measurement  is 
made.  The  points  for  the  measurements  are  the  centres 
of  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  letters. 

Every  letter  ends  with  a  straight  line,  having  a  diagonal 
connecting  line  with  a  turn,  as  u.  or  without  a  turn,  as  j, 
q  ;  or  is  an  oval  with  a  horizontal  connecting  line ;  or  is 
open  on  the  right  side,  as  c  and  e.  Every  letter  begins 
with  a  straight  line,  having  a  diagonal  connecting  line  with¬ 
out  a  turn,  as  u,  h,  p,  or  with  a  turn,  as  n,  y ;  or  is  an 
oval,  as  o,  a  ;  or  is  open  on  the  left  side,  as  s,  in  which  the 


<>6 


INSTRUCTION. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 

[n  teaching  writing  it  will  be  found  of  the  highest  im¬ 
portance  to  have  the  class  under  perfect  discipline.  As  the 
mind  is  very  materially  influenced  by  the  body,  accuracy 
of  position  and  precision  of  movement  tend  greatly  to  pro¬ 
mote  if.  The  class  should  be  drilled  to  act  as  a  unit.  Re¬ 
peat  and  repeat,  till  something  like  perfection  is  reached. 
Then  the  class  will  take  a  pride  in  it.  There  is  something 
fascinating  in  the  simultaneous  movement  of  every  mem¬ 
ber  of  a  body.  It  is  the  charm  of  all  military  manoeuvres. 
Now,  if  we  consider,  on  the  one  hand,  to  how  many  small 
things  attention  is  necessary  to  have  good  writing,  or  at  any 
rate  rapid  progress,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  natural 
inattention  of  children,  how  their  eyes  look  without  seeing, 
how  their  ears  admit  sonorous  vibrations  but  convey  no 
intelligence  to  the  mind,  how  soon  they  can  bring  their 
hands  to  act  mechanically  without  the  supervision  of  active 
thought,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  admit,  that  any  means 
which  will  aid  in  awakening  their  attention  and  keeping  it 
fixed  will  be  of  immense  value.  The  best  means  we  have 
found  by  experience  to  be  writing  in  concert ;  the  various 
parts  of  the  letters  or  principles  being  written  to  the  count 
of  numbers,  audibly  sounded  by  the  teacher  or  the  class 
Every  pupil  must,  of  course,  have  the  same  book,  and  write 
the  same  copy. 

It  has  been  objected  to  this,  that  we  cannot  expect 
those  who  are  full  of  nervous  excitement  to  write  at  the 


ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 


97 


same  rate  as  those  whose  temperament  is  dull  and  lym¬ 
phatic;  that  it  is  not  right  thus  to  retard  the  rapid,  and 
urge  on  so  fast  the  slow ;  that  nature  has  established 
certain  differences  which  we  ought  to  respect.  In  order 
to  form  a  correct  judgment,  let  us  examine  the  point  in 
question  in  the  light  of  what  wisdom  has  devised  in  other 
exercises,  upon  perfecting  which  the  utmost  attainments  of 
science  have  for  centuries  been  concentrated.  We  mean 
military  drill. 

Here  is  a  body  of  men  with  every  variety  of  tempera¬ 
ment  and  with  legs  of  different  lengths,  —  we  do  not  mean 
in  the  same  individual,  —  and  they  will  have  to  march,  as 
their  ordinary  means  of  locomotion.  How  shall  it  be  man¬ 
aged  ?  A  certain  length  of  step  is  fixed  upon,  and  a  given 
time,  and  they  are  all,  whether  long-legged  or  short-legged, 
whether  nervous  or  lymphatic,  taught  this  step  and  time. 
“  0,  but,”  says  our  follower  of  nature,  “  this  is  all  wrong, 
very  wrong.”  But  how,  then,  shall  we  manage  ?  How 
can  we  keep  them  in  order,  or  pei’form  a  single  evolution, 
if  each  man  chooses  his  own  length  of  step  and  his  own 
time  for  performing  it?  He  answers,  that  in  this  case 
we  must  submit  to  the  stern  requirements  of  necessity ; 
that  during  the  time  of  instructing  the  men,  or  when  in 
face  of  the  enemy,  it  may  not  be  so  very  objectionable ; 
but  adds,  as  his  eyes  brighten  with  anticipated  triumph, 
that  the  officers  do  not  keep  the  men  in  the  ranks  during 
a  long  march.  We  reply,  that  our  method  is  precisely  the 
same ;  we  use  counting  and  a  given  time  for  purposes  of 
instruction ;  when  the  course  is  completed,  and  their  pen 
marches  over  the  ample  pages  of  the  folio  or  the  ledger, 
each  one  may  adopt  that  rate  of  speed  which  best  suits 
his  natural  endowments. 

But  we  are  not  yet  satisfied  with  this  argument.  We  go 
5 


G 


08 


INSTRUCTION. 


further,  and  claim  that  the  objections  urged  against  the  use 
of  counting  are  the  strongest  arguments  in  its  favor.  We 
hold  that  it  is  precisely  this  restraint  that  the  nervously 
irritable  need,  this  urgency  that  the  lymphatic  require. 
The  very  fact  that  it  tempers  the  impatience  of  the  one, 
and  stimulates  the  inertness  of  the  other,  proves  its  ex¬ 
cellence.  Again,  the  manner  in  which  these  two  ends  are 
gained  is  worth  consideration.  The  restraint  operates  on 
the  individual  as  part  of  a  whole.  The  irritability^  aroused 
by  personal  restraint  is  unfelt  in  the  concerted  action.  It 
is  not  as  if  his  pen  must  be  kept  to  a  slow  pace ;  it  keeps 
that  pace  almost  naturally,  from  the  very  sympathy  of 
united  movement.  He  loses,  so  to  speak,  the  individuality 
of  himself  and  pen.  He  is  part  of  an  acting  body.  He 
is  not  directing  an  independent  pen,  but  one  out  of  a  num¬ 
ber.  Give  a  pupil  of  this  temperament  a  lesson  by  him¬ 
self.  Keep  him  only  so  far  restrained  as  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  attention  to  the  proper  formation  of  the  let¬ 
ters,  and  you  will  soon  see  at  how  great  a  disadvantage 
you  are  working.  The  same  line  of  reasoning  applies  to 
those  pupils  who  are  naturally  slow.  There  is  an  im¬ 
mensely  powerful  and  tranquillizing  effect  upon  each  mem¬ 
ber  of  a  disciplined  body,  owing  to  the  very  massiveness 
of  united  action.  It  is  more  strikingly  manifested  in  a 
large  class  than  in  a  small  one. 

So  far  our  argument  may  seem  to  apply  to  two  extreme 
cases,  rather  than  to  the  whole  class.  Is  writing  in  conceit 
equally  advantageous  for  the  far  larger  number  of  ordinary 
temperament  and  disposition?  We  think  it  is.  It  com¬ 
pels  them  to  the  observance  of  sufficient  time  to  form  the 
close  of  a  letter  with  the  same  accuracy  as  the  beginning. 
What  teacher  of  writing  has  failed  to  notice  how  prone 
scholars  are  to  make  the  third  section  of  the  letter  rn  slope 


ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 


99 


the  wrong  way,  owing  to  the  hurried  movement  with  which 
they  finish  it  ?  It  is  just  the  same  with  the  close  of  other 
letters  and  words.  In  fact,  time  for  thought  is  required  for 
every  part  of  the  letter,  and  the  movement  should  be 
equally  maintained  throughout.  This  is  effected  by  count¬ 
ing. 

Another  great  advantage  is,  that  the  teacher  can  save  a 
great  deal  of  time  by  addressing  his  instructions  to  the 
whole  class  at  once,  and  can  best  secure  their  attention 
from  the  immediate  bearing  of  it  upon  the  exercise  to  fol¬ 
low.  Whereas,  if  each  pupil  has  been  allowed  to  write  at 
his  own  rate  of  speed,  though  the  writing  may  be  stopped 
and  the  instruction  addressed  to  all,  what  interest  will  those 
feel  in  it  who  have  already  finished  the  copies  to  which  it 
refers  ?  What  benefit  will  they  derive  from  it,  since  its 
advice  and  warnings  are  no  longer  available  ?  In  every 
point  of  view,  theoretically,  the  method  of  writing  in  con 
cert  would  seem  to  offer  great  advantages  ;  the  testimony  of 
actual  experience  abundantly  confirms  it.  We  have  seen 
classes  of  all  sizes,  from  twelve  to  three  hundred,  making 
use  of  it  with  the  happiest  effect.  It  must,  of  course,  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  is  intended  for  the  earlier  part  of  the 
course,  and  not  for  continuance  through  the  whole.  When 
its  ends  have  been  answered,  and  the  pupils  write  every 
part  of  a  letter  or  combination  with  an  equable  movement, 
without  hurried  terminations,  its  end  is  answered,  its  object 
accomplished.  It  is  no  longer  needed.  All  that  remains 
to  be  added  on  this  head  is,  to  urge  the  teacher  to  see  that 
it  is  faithfully  carried  out,  especially  in  tracing,  and  that 
the  pupil  thinks  what  each  part  of  the  letter  is  to  be,  before 
lie  writes  it. 

Connected  with  this  branch  of  the  subject  is  the  com¬ 
mencing  and  closing  of  the  exercise,  inasmuch  as  concerted 


100 


INSTRUCTION. 


action  is  necessary.  It  is  a  matter  of  importance,  because, 
if  not  well  managed,  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  time 
is  lost.  We  one  day  saw  a  teacher  engaged  in  distributing 
books  to  a  class,  which  numbered  about  fifty.  They  were 
seated  at  desks  of  the  modern  style.  The  teacher,  having 
the  pile  of  books,  took  up  one,  looked  at  the  name  on  it, 
mentioned  it  not  very  loud,  and  handed  it  to  a  bright  little 
scholar,  who  started  off  at  a  swift  walk  to  hunt  out  the 
pupil  to  which  it  belonged,  and  to  deliver  it;  then,  back 
again  to  the  teacher.  The  same  plan  was  followed  through¬ 
out.  As  there  were  fifty  books  to  be  delivered,  as  they 
had  been  collected  without  any  regard  to  order,  or  the 
class  were  seated  in  different  places,  the  journeys  of  the 
messenger  wei*e  very  agreeably  diversified ;  and  as  no  sign 
was  made  by  the  pupil  whose  book  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
express,  a  voyage  of  discovery  was  sometimes  made  in  the 
remotest  regions,  before  the  owner  was  discovered  in  one 
of  the  front  rows.  The  messenger,  during  one  whole  quar¬ 
ter  of  an  hour ,  took  a  very  fair  amount  of  exercise,  and  the 
class  was  kept  in  a  pleasing  state  of  excitement  as  to  whose 
book  would  come  next,  and  whether  the  messenger  would 
find  the  proprietor  at  the  end  of  a  straight  course,  or  after 
making  repeated  tacks.  Some  may  think  that  this  time 
would  have  been  more  profitably  spent  in  writing.  For 
the  use  of  such,  we  append  the  following  method  of  opening 
and  closing  the  a  rcise,  which  we  have  used  in  large  pub¬ 
lic  schools.  It  will  be  found  very  economical  in  point  of 
time,  and  is  susceptible  of  any  modifications  which  may  be 
thought  desirable. 

Commencement  of  an  Exercise. 

Remembering  that  the  books  are  always  collected  in  the 
teverse  order  to  that  in  which  they  are  given  out,  the  moni* 


ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 


•  101 


tor  goes  down  the  aisle  and  places  on  the  desk  at  the  right* 
ha  *d  end  of  each  row,  in  front  of  the  boj,  with  the  backs  tu 
his  left,  the  number  of  books  which  belong  to  the  row,  taken 
from  the  top  of  the  pile  he  carries.  A  second  monitor, 
following,  places  the  same  number  of  pens  above  the  books, 
with  their  points  to  the  right  of  the  pupil,  seated.  A  third 
does  the  same  with  the  pen-wipers.  When  this  is  done  the 
teacher  gives  the  following  words  of  command  :  — 

“  Take  Books.”  The  pupils  to  the  right  (the  teacher’s 
left)  insert  their  left  hands  above  the  back  of  the  lowest 
book,  and  grasp  those  above  with  the  thumb,  lift  them,  and 
take  hold  of  the  other  side  of  the  books  with  their  right 
hands.  At  a  wave  of  the  teacher’s  hand  they  place  them 
in  front  of  the  pupils  on  their  left,  who  immediately  insert 
their  hands,  lift,  &c.,  and  at  the  next  wave  of  the  hand 
pass  as  before,  and  so  on  till  each  pupil  has  his  own  book 
left  before  him.  If  there  are  any  vacancies,  caused  by 
the  absence  of  pupils,  the  nearest  pupil  moves  to  the  va¬ 
cant  place  and  officiates,  then  immediately  resumes  his 
own  seat,  and  all  goes  on  as  before. 

“  Take  Pen-wipers.  ”  The  pupils  to  the  right  pass  all 
but  one,  at  a  wave  of  the  teacher’s  hand  ;  the  next  all  but 
one  at  the  next  wave,  and  so  on. 

“  Take  Pens.  ”  The  pupils  to  the  right  take  up  the 
heaps  of  pens  in  their  right  hands,  with  the  points  down¬ 
wards,  and  transfer  all  but  one  to  their  left  hands.  At  a 
wave  of  the  teacher’s  hand,  they  pass  them  to  the  pupils  on 
their  left,  who  receive  them  with  their  right,  transfer  and 
pass  at  the  next  wave  as  before,  and  so  on  till  each  pupil 
has  his  pen  in  his  hand,  point  down,  and  held  at  the  level 
of  the  breast.  Vacancies  are  provided  for  as  before.  The 
teacher  now  makes  a  downward  motion  of  the  hand.  All 
lay  their  pens  on  the  back  of  the  de;--k,  with  the  points  to 
the  right. 


102 


INSTRUCTION. 


The  teacher  gives  numbers  for  the  rest  jf  the  drill. 
1.  Take  Position.  (See  the  chapter  on  Position  and 
Movement  for  this  and  the  following  orders.)  2.  Adjust 
Books.  3.  Adjust  Arms.  4.  Right  hand  finds  place  in 
the  books  at  upper  corner.  5.  Books  are  opened  at  page. 
Left  hand  replaced.  Right  hand  to  be  just  below  the 
lower  edge  of  the  book.  6.  Right  hand  of  each  pupil 
seated  to  the  right  on  the  inkstand  lid.  7.  Open  inkstands 
and  right  hand  as  before.  8.  Take  pens  with  points  down¬ 
wards,  and  adjust  for  writing  without  moving  the  left  baud. 
9.  Dip  the  pen  in  the  ink  and  keep  it  there.  “  Ready.” 
Pen  placed  on  paper,  where  commencement  is  to  be  made. 
“  Write.  ”  The  pupils  begin  and  count  as  directed,  1,2,  — • 
1,  2,  &c. 

At  the  end  of  the  column-line,  “  Back,  ”  “  Ready,  ” 
“  Write,”  1,  2,  &c.  After  two  or  three  lines  of  the  column 
are  written,  give  the  order  “  Ink,  ”  as  in  9.  This  keeps  the 
ink  from  clogging  the  nibs.  If  the  pupils  sit  fronting  the 
desks,  at  the  close  of  every  fourth  line  the  order  should  be 
given,  “  Move  up  Books,  ”  or  the  arm  will  get  off  the  desk. 
If  the  pupils  are  to  trace,  omit  9,  and  say  “  Trace,  ”  to 
instruct  them  what  to  do,  “  Ready,”  as  above,  and  “  Trace 
the  Copy,  ”  to  begin. 

Closing  the  Exercise. 

1.  Wipe  Pens.  2.  Position.  3.  Pass  Pens,  beginning 
in  reverse  order  to  the  giving  out.  4.  Hands  of  boys  to 
the  right  on  lids  of  inkstands.  5.  Close  inkstands.  6. 
Books ;  they  have  now  had  time  to  dry.  7.  Pass  books ; 
each  boy  at  the  successive  wraves  of  the  hand,  places  the 
book  or  books  before  him,  on  the  top  of  that  before  the  boy 
on  his  right.  8.  Pass  pen-wipers.  The  teacher  gives  the 
D umbers  only. 


ON  DRILL  AND  COUNTING. 


103 


The  monitors  then  collect  the  books,  the  pens,  and  the  pen« 
wipers.  To  keep  the  heaps  of  books  apart,  a  piece  of  paper 
is  placed  on  each  heap  as  it  is  collected.  The  monitor  in 
giving  out  the  books  leaves  the  paper  on  the  desks.  In 
giving  out,  he  takes  from  the  top  of  the  pile,  beginning  in 
front  of  the  room  ;  in  collecting,  he  places  on  the  top,  be¬ 
ginning  at  the  back  of  the  room.  This  drill  is  strongly 
recommended  as  one  of  great  beauty  and  utility,  when 
accurately  executed.  The  class  can  by  this  means  be  pre¬ 
pared  for  work  in  a  third  of  the  time  required  by  any 
other  method. 


On  Counting. 

The  *,  e,  x,  t,  l,j,  and  long  s  require  three  motions,  and 
are  counted  1,  2,  1,  —  the  odd  numbers  up,  the  even  down, 
The  c,  r,  s,  z,  and  /have  four  motions,  and  are  counted  1; 
2,  3,  1.  The  u.  n,  v ,  o,  a,  d,  p,  q ,  h,  b,  g ,  and  y  require  five 
motions,  and  are  counted  1,  2,  3,  4,  1.  The  k  has  six 
motions,  counted  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  1.  The  m  and  w  have  seven 
motions,  and  are  counted  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  1. 

Cross  the  t  and  x,  and  dot  the  i  and  j  after  the  group  or 
word  is  finished.  Cross  the  x  upwards  to  insure  a  hair 
line.  For  small  children,  fer  c,  r,  z,  1,  2,  3,  4,  1,  may 
be  counted  if  preferred.  It  will  be  found  important,  also, 
to  show  on  the  board  precisely  how  much  cf  the 
is  made  at  each  count. 


106 


INSTRUCTION. 


proposed,  —  What  are  the  successive  steps  by  which  these 
two  branches,  comprising  the  end  to  be  aimed  at,  are  to 
be  prosecuted?  They  run  in  parallel  lines,  teaching  the 
form  and  teaching  the  execution. 

First,  as  regards  the  steps  in  teaching  form.  The 
teacher  should  begin  by  acquiring  an  intelligent  appre¬ 
ciation  of  the  System  of  Penmanship  he  intends  to  use. 
He  must  understand  the  plan  on  which  it  is  constructed, 
that  is,  if  it  have  one.  We  proceed  to  the  discussion  of 
our  own,  as  that  in  which  we  are  more  particularly  in¬ 
terested.  Though  other  systems  boldly  claim  perfection, 
some  of  them  in  as  many  as  twenty  different  particulars,  yet 
we  hope  to  be  excused  for  a  natural  partiality  towards  our 
own  offspring,  whose  origin  and  growth  are  the  expressed 
result  of  years  of  patient  thought  and  practical  experience. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  principles  are  introduced  first; 
the  reason  is,  that  they  are  the  component  parts  of  let¬ 
ters.  Why,  then,  should  not  the  elements,  which  are  still 
simpler  forms,  be  given  for  separate  practice  ?  Because 
they  are  too  small  and  fragmentary.  Our  system,  there¬ 
fore,  begins  with  the  principles,  though  in  No.  1,  the  first 
element,  which  is  the  straight  line, -is  given,  because  every 
letter,  except  c,  e ,  o,  s,  has  this  element  written  down 
wards  for  one  or  more  of  its  main  lines.  If  now  we  add 
at  the  bottom  of  it  a  turn  and  connecting  line,  we  have 
the  first  principle,  and  can  readily  perceive  why  it  has  this 
precedence ;  namely,  because  it  is  written  downwards,  like 
Element  One,  and  is  formed  by  an  addition  to  it.  The 
next  modification  of  the  straight  line  arises  from  uniting 
the  connecting  line  to  it  by  a  turn  at  the  top;  this  is 
the  second  principle.  The  third  has  two  connecting  lines 
joined  to  the  straight  line  by  turns  both  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  The  fourth  principle  is  the  oval  and  its  modified 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


10? 


form  as  used  in  combination.  All  the  short  letters  result 
from  connectiops  of  these  four  principles ;  hence  two  kinds 
of  exercises  are  given,  viz.  groups  in  which  a  principle  is 
repeated  several  times,  and  similar  combinations  of  a  single 
letter.  The  principles  are  thus  introduced  in  order,  and 
the  short  letters,  the  simplest  forms  always  having  the 
precedence.  Next,  we  have  the  stem-letters,  and  then  the 
loops,  which  are  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Suitable  ex¬ 
ercises  accompany  them.  The  capitals  come  last. 

In  the  small  letters  the  forms  are  fixed,  but  those  of 
capitals  are  so  varied  that  a  selection  has  to  be  made 
What  principles  should  guide  us  ?  Capitals  are  a  very 
difficult  part  of  the  work.  They  are  large,  and,  from  the 
very  nature  of  their  use,  stand  out  prominently  and  attract 
attention,  so  that  any  fault  in  them  is  very  easily  perceived. 
Few  persons  will  hesitate,  then,  to  concede,  that  there 
should  be  but  one  set  for  beginners,  and  those  of  the 
simplest  form.  This  is  a  very  important  point,  and  claims 
the  teacher’s  earnest  consideration  in  the  choice  of  a  sys¬ 
tem.  Fancy  capitals  are  very  beautiful,  and  catch  the 
eye,  but  let  the  judicious  teacher  reflect  as  to  whether 
they  are  characterized  by  that  simplicity  and  facility  of 
execution  which  are  so  necessary  for  elementary  instruc¬ 
tion.  Are  they  the  best  adapted,  nay,  are  they  in  the 
least  adapted,  to  fix  the  pupil’s  mind  upon  the  elementary 
principles  of  form,  and  are  they  easy  enough  for  his  un¬ 
skilled  hand  to  execute?  For  ourselves,  we  are  satisfied 
that  they  are  utterly  unfit  for  the  former  purpose,  and  that 
they  are  far  too  difficult  for  the  latter.  The  pupil  has 
not  yet  advanced  far  enough  to  strike  them  with  a  free 
hand  ;  they  cannot  be  even  tolerably  written  in  any  other 
way.  This  has  led  's  to  decide  upon  very  plain  and 
simple,  though  elegant  ffirms.  “  But,”  said  a  teacher  to 


108 


INSTRUCTION. 


one  of  our  agents,  “  I  do  not  like  your  capital-stem  ending 

in  a  dot.  I  very  much  prefer  that  it  should  terminate  with 

• 

a  curve  gracefully  swung  round.”  Said  our  friend,  “  Which 
is  easiest  ?  ”  “  O,”  replied  the  teacher,  “  I  suppose  the 

dot.”  “  Which  is  most  interesting,”  resumed  our  friend, 
“  a  story  or  the  ABC?”  “A  story  of  course.”  “  Then,” 
replied  he,  “  why  do  you  not  set  a  class  to  read  on  the 
story  before  they  know  their  ABC?  In  writing  it  is  just 
the  same,  the  ABC  before  the  story,  the  dot  before  the 
graceful  oval.”  It  may  not  appear  at  first  sight  why  the 
fancy  capitals,  when  only  indifferently  made,  should  look 
so  much  worse  than  the  plain  ones  though  even  badly 
made,  but  the  fact  is  unquestionable.  The  reason  is  very 
simple.  It  is  because  the  former  are  more  pretentious. 
When  a  child  presumes  to  do  a  man’s  work  and  fails, 
he  becomes  ridiculous,  whereas  a  man  failing  in  the  same 
work  is  not  ridiculous  at  all ;  it  is  on  account  of  the 
presumption  displayed  by  the  former.  Take  an  instance 
from  skating.  An  awkward  fellow,  who  might  escape 
notice  and  pass  muster,  if  he  could  rest  contented  with 
plain  running,  becomes  grotesque  and  a  laughing-stock 
when  he  attempts  the  graceful  figures  of  the  finished  skater 
and  fails  of  success.  But  one  thing  can  palliate  presump¬ 
tion,  —  that  is,  success.  Our  capitals  will  be  found,  for 
the  above  reasons,  reduced  to  the  simplest  forms  and 
susceptible  of  accurate  measurement.  They  cannot  be  ex¬ 
pected  to  have  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  others,  but 
we  claim  that  they  are  the  best  adapted  to  the  end  for 
which  they  are  designed.  In  No.  12,  we  have  given  what 
are  termed  the  current  forms,  and  they  are  practically  ap¬ 
plied  in  mercantile  forms  in  No.  7,  which  should  follow 
No.  12.  When  the  pupil,  having  pursued  our  method 
faithfully,  arrives  at  these,  he  is  qualified,  both  as  to  eye 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


109 


and  hand,  to  “  strike  ”  them  with  good  prospect  of  success. 
In  our  elementary  books  we  adhere  to  one  form,  and  that 
the  simplest. 

The  next  point  to  be  noticed  in  pur  system  is  the  gradual 
introduction  of  longer  words,  so  that  the  hand  is  trained  by 
degrees  to  use  the  comital  and  sliding  movements  in  writ¬ 
ing  across  the  longest  without  difficulty.  This  is  an  abso¬ 
lutely  essential  point,  and  one  of  the  special  reasons  why 
columns  are  given  and  directed  to  be  written  downwards. 
Another  reason  for  writing  them  downwards  is,  that  the 
word  at  the  head  of  each  has  been  selected  with  a  definite 
purpose,  —  to  introduce  some  particular  combination,  &c. 
To  write  across  the  line,  then,  instead  of  down  the  column, 
would  be  opposed  to  our  plan  of  one  thing  at  a  time ;  it 
would  present  a  variety  of  combinations  for  practice,  in¬ 
stead  of  fixing  the  attention  on  one,  and  practising  that  till 
it  can  be  written  well.  The  sentences  are  to  be  written 
across  the  page.  If  written  downwards,  a  word  at  a  time, 
the  object  for  which  they  are  designed  is  defeated,  namely, 
the  final  training  of  the  hand  to  write  across  the  page, 
which  brings  the  lateral  movement  into  practice.  The 
more  difficult  combinations  of  letters  in  words  are  gradu¬ 
ally  introduced. 

Some  of  the  books  will  be  found  to  be  especially  de 
signed  for  girls,  the  hand  being  finer.  No.  7,  as  we  have 
said,  contains  mercantile  forms,  and  should  be  preceded  by 
No.  12,  in  which  different  forms  of  current  capitals  are 
given.  By  a  slight  examination  of  the  different  numbers, 
the  intelligent  teacher  will  now  fully  comprehend  the  ar¬ 
rangement  of  our  system  and  the  principles  upon  which  it 
is  constructed.  The  particular  character  of  each  of  the 
different  numbers  will  be  found  in  the  Introduction. 

Having  thus  considered  the  plan  of  the  copy-books,  we 


110 


INSTRUCTION. 


proceed  to  the  more  particular  development  of  the  course 
of  instruction  which  should  accompany  them.  The  first 
point,  after  giving  out  the  copy-books,  is  to  teach  what  is 
needed  to  be  known  as^to  lines.  A  chapter  and  a  lesson 
will  be  found  devoted  to  them.  The  teacher  should  begin 
with  thoroughness  here.  He  should  determine  that  every 
pupil  shall  know  the  lines  familiarly  by  their  names,  and, 
it  might  be  added,  know  his  right  hand  from  his  left. 
Next  in  order  comes  position  of  the  body,  arms,  and  hands. 
Then,  pen  holding  Next,  rests.  Then,  movements.  After 
these,  which  will  be  found  fully  treated  of,  either  in  chap¬ 
ters  or  lessons,  sometimes  in  both,  let  the  first  copy  be  ex¬ 
plained.  A  lesson  on  it  will  be  found  in  Part  II.  Then 
may  follow  the  lesson  on  the  principles  and  elements,  in 
which  is  shown  h>_.w  we  seek  to  impress  the  forms  on  the 
minds  of  the  oupits.  If  preferred,  this  lesson  may  form 
part  of  the  instruction  to  accompany  chi-  preceding  from 
day  to  day.  When  a  mental  conception  has  been  thus 
obtained  the  order  of  practice  is,  tracing  the  copy,  writing 
it  on  waste  paper,  ruled  like  the  book  both  as  to  horizontal 
lines  and  columns,  and  finally  m  the  copy-book,  each  of 
which  exercises  is  performed  in  concert.  All  practice 
should  be  subjected  to  constant  criticism. 

Secondly.  The  order  of  the  successive  steps  in  teach¬ 
ing  execution  is,  —  first,  the  finger  movement  to  form  the 
letters,  combined  with  the  sliding  movement  of  the  hand, 
and  the  comital  of  the  fore-arm,  to  keep  the  pen  in  the 
same  relative  position  to  each  succeeding  letter  When 
this  combined  movement  is  perfectly  familiar,  the  muscular 
and  medial  may  be  added  to  give  freedom  and  boldness. 
When  sentences  are  written  extending  across  the  whole 
page,  the  lateral,  whereby  the  whole  fore-arm  and  hand  is 
moved  to  the  right,  will  bee  nne  necessary.  It  is  used  to 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


Ill 


place  the  rolling-rest  in  such  advanced  positions  as  will 
render  the  limited  scope  of  the  comital  movement  always 
available. 

A  common  and  excellent  movement  for  a  business  hand 
is  to  allow  the  sliding  rest  to  participate  in  the  medial 
movement,  and  to  form  all  the  short  letters  by  the  muscu¬ 
lar  movement,  the  huger  movement  being  used  only  for 
loops  and  stems. 

We  propose  now  to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  some  ol 
these  steps.  Speaking  generally,  we  would  urge  upon  the 
teacher  to  confine  his  attention  during  each  lesson  to  one 
or  two  things  only.  For  instance,  one  of  the  authors  of 
this  system  occupied  the  whole  time  of  one  lesson  with  a 
class,  who  were  writing  their  first  copy  in  No.  2,  in  getting 
them  to  begin  and  end  the  group  like  the  copy.  All  that 
appeared  written  in  the  copy-book  at  the  close  of  the  exer¬ 
cise  was  one  column.  But  what  a  difference  between  the 
last  line  and  the  first !  The  first,  crowded  together,  filling 
only  half  the  width  of  the  column,  and  of  course  all  the 
turns  and  combining  lines  wrong ;  the  last  beginning  and 
ending  right,  the  principles  disposed  at  equal  spaces,  and  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  turns  and  combining  lines. 
The  improvement  in  a  single  lesson  was  astonishing. 
“  One  thing  at  a  time  ”  is  the  true  secret  of  success.  A 11 
the  energy  of  the  will  should  be  directed  to  the  one  point 
selected,  and  thus  a  thorough  impression  made  on  the 
children’s  minds.  The  points,  for  instance,  that  may  be 
taken  up  separately  in  the  first  copy  of  No.  1  are,  that  the 
number  of  straight  lines  should  be  the  same  ;  that  they 
touch  the  top  and  bottom  lines ;  that  they  be  the  same 
distance  apart ;  that  they  occupy  the  width  of  the  column ; 
that  the  top  and  bottom  be  made  square ;  that  they  he  of 
uniform  shade  throughout,  both  individually  and  in  the 


112 


INSTRUCTION. 


group ;  that  they  slope  alike.  Again,  in  the  first  copy  of 
No.  2,  in  addition,  that  the  turns  be  similar;  the  connec- 
tions  one  fourth  the  space ;  and  the  connecting  lines  at  the 
beginning  and  close  touch  the  base  and  head  lines.  In  No. 
4,  that  they  be  all  of  uniform  height,  &c.  We  are  led  to 
be  thus  minute  from  several  instances  we  have  met  with. 
A  teacher  showed  us,  one  day,  the  copy  of  a  pupil,  remark¬ 
ing  on  the  improvement.  It  happened  to  be  the  first  copy 
of  No.  1.  We  said,  “  The  child  was  not  taught  to  write 
so,  was  it?”  “Why  not?”  “You  surely  did  not  teach 
it  to  make  twenty-one  straight  lines,  when  there  are  only 
twelve  in  the  copy.”  What  was  the  exclamation  in  re¬ 
ply  ?  “I  never  thought  of  that !  ” 

The  “  waste  paper  ”  should  be  ruled  like  the  copy,  and 
of  good  quality,  since  it  is  to  be  used  preparatory  to  writ¬ 
ing  in  the  book.  Perhaps  the  most  convenient  plan  is  to 
cut  up  the  same  number,  or  to  let  the  pupil  have  a  dupli¬ 
cate  book. 

As  to  selecting  books  for  a  course  of  instruction,  for  a 
primary  class,  and  for  older  pupils,  where  their  hands  have 
been  accustomed  to  hard  work,  we  should  recommend  No. 
1.  If  they  can  already  write,  and  the  teacher  wishes  to 
adopt  our  method  of  teaching,  he  had  better  take  up  No.  2. 
Then  No.  3.  They  have  both  been  newly  revised  and  re¬ 
written.  No.  2  is  very  thorough  in  its  course  on  the  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  gives  a  fine  preparation  for  No.  3.  The  latter 
contains  the  principles,  small  letters,  and  capitals  with 
words.  These  two  numbers  are  essential  to  our  course  of 
instruction. 

In  teaching  the  principles  of  any  new  letter,  always  be¬ 
gin  by  a  thorough  analysis  on  the  board,  and  by  impressing 
the  form  on  the  mind  in  every  possible  way.  Then  require 
a  minute  description  in  all  the  particulars  from  the  copy. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


113 


Determine  to  have  the  principles  nearly  as  well  written  as 
the  copies,  in  slope,  straight  lines,  curves,  turns,  and  width, 
before  you  leave  them.  The  pupils,  now  commencing  a  new 
study,  are  docile.  They  have  not  yet  got  any  knowledge  to 
set  up  against  yours.  Therefore  begin  your  course  cf  in¬ 
struction  at  once,  and  let  it  be  so  thorough  that  they  shall 
throughout  be  satisfied  with  it.  One  of  the  most  sure 
<auses  of  bad  writing  is  the  pupils’  hurrying  through  a 
book  to  get  into  the  higher  numbers.  This  arises  from  a 
foolish  vanity.  They  would  fain  believe  themselves  great, 
by  being  occupied  with  what  is  great,  however  unfitted  it 
may  be  to  their  then  state  of  progress.  Then,  again,  they 
can  boast  to  their  friends,  “I  am  in  No.  12.”  Whereas, 
if  their  No.  12  was  seen,  it  would  be  imagined  that  a 
spider  had  been  bathing  his  feet  in  the  ink,  and  then  walk¬ 
ing  over  its  pages  to  dry  them.  It  is  fatal  to  all  progress. 
But  it  is  asked,  perhaps,  Can  the  children  be  interested 
for  so  long  a  time  in  the  same  thing  ?  It  depends  very 
greatly  on  the  teacher.  We  mention  one  among  many 
instances  that  have  actually  occurred.  In  a  school  in  the 
Eastern  District  of  Brooklyn,  we  have  known  children  to 
go  home  and  practise  at  the  letter  m  from  three  o’clock  till 
ten,  when  their  parents  sent  them  to  bed,  in  order  to  bring 
a  perfect  specimen  to  their  teacher  next  morning.  Further, 
they  wrote  for  a  whole  year  in  No.  3,  with  the  utmost  con¬ 
tentment.  Suppose  you  start  with  this  idea  before  your 
pupils,  to  see  how  soon  one  of  their  number  can  bring  you 
a  perfect  imitation  of  the  copy,  say  a  single  group  of  the 
first  principle, —  how  soon  ten  can,  twenty,  the  whole  class. 
Show  the  successful  attempts  to  those  who  have  not  yet  suc¬ 
ceeded,  and  bid  them  look  upon  them  as  pledges  of  their 
own  success.  Paste  them  into  a  book  with  the  pupils’ 
names  attached,  as  something  valuable.  Depend  upon  it, 


H 


114 


INSTRUCTION. 


that  as  soon  as  they  can  see  their  own  marked  improve¬ 
ment,  there  will  be  no  lack  of  interest.  They  may  be 
reminded,  too,  of  the  number  of  letters  in  which  that  prin¬ 
ciple  occurs,  and  that  thus  they  are  learning  it  once  for  all ; 
that  in  writing  words,  they  are  after  all  only  writing  letters, 
and  in  writing  letters,  principles  ;  with  this  disadvantage  in 
both  cases,  that  their  attention  is  distracted  by  the  variety. 

In  the  same  way,  give  most  determined  and  long-con¬ 
tinued  practice  to  the  groups  of  letters.  In  them  the 
pupil’s  attention  is  fixed  on  the  form  of  the  letter.  In 
words,  he  is  too  apt  to  fix  his  attention  on  the  word  as  a 
whole,  and  not  on  the  letters.  A  superior  teacher  said  to 
us  one  day,  “  I  wish  your  copies  were  all  in  Latin  or  Ger¬ 
man.  ”  “  Why  ?  ”  said  we.  “  Because,”  he  replied,  u  the 

children  look  at  the  combination  as  a  whole,  and  do  not 
give  the  least  thought  to  the  letters  as  they  write  them. 
I  have  often,  after  they  have  written  a  word,  told  them  to 
write  the  same  word,  reversing  the  order  of  the  letters, 
putting  the  last  first,  and  have  been  surprised  to  see  how 
much  better  the  letters  were  formed.  You  see  they  had 
to  think  of  each \  letter  then.”  He  was  perfectly  right. 
Let  the  teacher  be  on  his  gua^d  against  this  fault. 

So  in  the  capitals,  have  one  written  well  before  another 
is  taken  up.  Let  the  pupils  know  to  how  many  letters  the 
different  parts  are  common,  and  that  therefore,  mastering 
them  for  one,  they  master  them  for  all. 

In  word'*,  dwell  much  on  the  commencing  and  closing 
slopes ;  the  first  sets  the  pattern,  the  last  shows  it  has  been 
kept.  The  loops  are  very  difficult,  and  the  dots  in  b ,  v,  iv,  s, 
are  apt  to  be  very  carelessly  written.  Make  “  special  hob¬ 
bies”  of  these  points.  Attending  to  them  perseveringly, 
you  will,  be  astonished  to  see  how  the  rest  of  the  let¬ 
ters  will  fall  into  shape.  As  to  criticism,  everything  will 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


115 


depend  on  its  thoroughness.  Its  province  embraces  all 
branches  of  the  subject.  In  the  Schedule  of  Topics 
prefixed  to  this  chapter,  the  teacher  will  find  a  state¬ 
ment  of  the  particulars  on  which  he  is  to  exercise  its 
power.  He  should  move  about  among  the  class  during 
the  lesson,  and  criticise  two  or  three  of  the  points  selected 
from  it.  Unless  there  is  some  glaring  neglect  or  fault, 
which  requires  immediate  attention,  it  will  be  better  to 
take  them  up  in  order.  As  he  goes  round,  he  should  also 
notice  errors  in  form,  &c.,  and  again  on  a  more  particular 
inspection  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  line,  for  more  than  this 
should  never  be  written  without  examination.  The  class 
being  stopped,  he  will  draw  the  faulty  forms  he  has  noticed 
on  the  board,  and  call  for  criticism.  Let  the  hand  be  raised 
by  those  who  perceive  the  faults.  When  the  one  selected 
has  stated  his  point,  see  how  many  agree ;  if  right,  make 
the  correction,  and  inquire  how  many  erred  thus ;  then 
proceed  to  the  next  fault.  If  the  teacher  is  not  himself  a 
good  writer,  let  him  correct  over  the  error ;  the  want  of 
correctness  in  his  own  is  then  not  remarked  ;  it  merely 
serves  to  notify  that  that  point  has  been  attended  to. 
When  they  become  a  little  accustomed  to  criticising,  let  the 
points  be  taken  up  in  regular  order.  The  teacher  should 
then  dwell  especially  on  the  most  prominent  fault,  and  re¬ 
quire  them  to  give  especial  attention  to  correct  it  when  the 
writing  is  resumed. 

It  seems  scarcely  worth  while  to  specify  what  faults  the 
pupils  are  most  likely  to  fall  into.  The  teacher  will  dis¬ 
cover  them  but  too  soon.  They  may  always  be  looked 
for  on  each  side  of  the  rule ;  if  a  line  is  to  be  sloped,  it 
will  be  sloped  too  much  or  too  little ;  if  a  turn  is  to  be 
made  of  a  certain  shape,  it  will  be  too  round  or  too  sharp ; 
if  a  space  of  a  given  width,  it  will  be  too  broad  or  too 


116 


INSTRUCTION. 


narrow.  The  critical  eye  must  look  on  each  side  of  the 
happy  mean. 

Let  much  care  be  taken  to  keep  the  books  clean  and 
free  from  blots.  The  following  fact  illustrates  the  effect 
of  taking  care.  In  the  good  old  times,  when  the  virtues 
of  Dr.  Birch  were  more  generally  relied  upon  than  at 
present,  there  lived  an  old  Englishman,  whose  name,  singu¬ 
larly  enough,  was  Bull.  He  had  two  sons.  Whenever 
they  fell  down,  he  always  gave  them  a  thrashing.  It  was 
of  no  use  for  them  to  plead  that  they  could  not  help  it. 
His  rule  was  invariable.  What  was  the  effect?  They 
became  the  surest-footed  boys  in  the  parish.  Moral  : 
Accidents  can  almost  always  be  avoided. 

If  the  course  we  have  here  mapped  out  seems  to  in¬ 
volve  great  labor  on  the  teacher’s  part,  we  cannot  deny 
it.  A  whole  class  of  good  writers  cannot  be  formed  with¬ 
out  indefatigable  exertions.  But  we  can  assure  him  who 
faithfully  pursues  this  method  of  a  success  which  will  most 
amply  repay  him.  He  will  find  himself,  by  the  remark¬ 
able  progress  made,  able  to  excite  an  enthusiasm  in  this 
branch,  which  will  lead  to  most  astonishing  results,  as 
satisfactory  to  the  parents,  trustees,  and  pupils,  as  they 
are  gratifying  to  his  own  just  pride. 


PART  II. 


LESSONS 


PART  II. 


LESSONS. 

LESSON  I. 

ON  LINES  AND  ANGLES. 

We  have  represented  the  Class  answering  as  a  whole, 
merely  to  save  space.  The  Teacher  of  course  will  use  his 
own  judgment  in  eliciting  replies  ;  selecting  individuals,  or 
requiring  answers  in  concert,  as  he  may  prefer. 

Teac-her.  (Drawing  a  straight  line  on  the  board.) 
What  is  that?  Class.  A  line.  T.  (Drawing  a  curve 
line.)  And  that?  C.  A  curve  line.  T.  They  are  both 
lines,  then  ?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  How  did  I  make  them  ? 
C.  By  drawing  the  chalk  along  on  the  board.  T.  If  I 
touch  the  board  thus  with  the  chalk,  what  do  I  make  ? 
C.  A  dot.  T.  (Making  another  dot  close  to  it.)  And 
that  ?  C.  A  dot.  T.  Making  several  dots  nearly  touch¬ 
ing.)  What  are  those?  C.  Dots.  T.  If  they  touched 
one  another,  what  should  we  have?  C.  Aline.  T.  If 
a  dot  then  kept  moving  along  and  marking  its  footsteps, 
we  should  have  a  line  ?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Now  you  know 
what  a  line  is.  A  line  is  the  path  of  a  moving  dot.  Are 
these  two  lines  alike  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  What  is  the 
difference?  C.  One  is  straight,  the  other  curved.  T.  A 
straight  line  is  where  the  dot  keeps  moving  in  the  same 
direction.  A  curve  or  curved  line  is  where  it  constantly 
changes  its  direction.  (Drawing  a  crooked  line.)  What 


120 


LESSONS. 


is  that  ?  C.  A  crooked  line.  T.  If  you  examine  it  care* 
fully,  you  will  see  that  it  is  made  up  of  curves  and  straight 
lines.  It  is  compound,  not  simple.  You  must  remem¬ 
ber  that  a  curve  may  be  very  short.  There  are  only 
two  kinds  of  lines,  straight  and  curved.  Now,  mind  and 
recollect  the  definitions  of  them  and  of  a  line.  (The  Class 
may  here  give  them.)  T.  (Drawing  a  horizontal  straight 
line.)  What  is  that  ?  C.  A  straight  line.  T.  Why  is 
it  ?  C.  Because  the  dot  moved  in  the  same  direction.  T. 
( Drawing  a  vertical  straight  line.)  That?  C.  A  straight 
line.  T.  Why  ?  C.  (As  before.)  T.  (Drawing  one  ob¬ 
liquely.)  That?  C.  A  slanting  line.  T.  Is  it  a  straight 
line  ?  C.  No,  sir.  (This  actually  occurred :  a  vast  ma¬ 
jority  of  children  think  that  only  horizontal  and  vertical 
lines  are  straight.)  T.  Is  it  crooked.  C.  No,  sir.  T.  Is 
it  curved  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  What  is  the  definition  of  a 
straight  line?  C.  (Give  it.)  T.  Did  the  dot  move  in 
the  same  direction  in  forming  that  line?  C.  Yes,  sir. 
T.  What  is  it,  then  ?  C.  A  straight  line.  T.  (Drawing 
a  number  of  straight  lines  radiating  in  all  directions  as 
from  a  common  centre,  but  all  separate.)  What  are  all 
those  ?  C.  Straight  lines.  T.  Does  it  make  any  differ¬ 
ence  what  direction  they  are  in  ?  C.  No,  sir. 

T.  Do  you  know  what  a  form  the  shape  of  an  egg  is 
called?  C.  An  oval.  T.  Why?  C.  From  the  Latin 
name  for  an  egg.  T.  (Draws  the  shape  of  an  egg  upright, 
and  by  two  horizontal  lines  cuts  off  about  a  fourth  at 
top  and  bottom,  pointing  to  the  four  sections  of  the  line.) 
Which  kind  of  line  are  these  ?  C.  Curves.  T.  Do  they 
all  curve  alike  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  Which  curve  most  ? 
C.  The  top  and  bottom.  T.  Do  they  curve  alike  ?  C. 
No,  the  top  curves  most.  T.  Do  the  sides  curve  uniformly 
throughout  ?  C.  No,  the  lower  part  bulges  out.  T.  The 


ON  LINES  AND  ANGLES. 


121 


o  fal  in  writing  is  so  named,  because  it  has  lofig  sides  and 
narrow  ends,  like  the  egg.  But  it  differs  from  the  egg 
shape  in  this,  that  the  curves  of  the  sides  are  uniform 
throughout,  —  there  is  no  bulge ;  and  both  the  ends  curve 
•alike,  —  one  is  not  narrower  than  the  other.  It  is  termed 
an  elliptical  oval,  because  it  derives  these  peculiarities  from 
a  mathematical  figure  called  an  ellipse.  (Draws  such  an 
oval  upright,  sloping  both  ways  and  horizontal.)  (Re¬ 
view.) 

T.  Have  any  of  you  got  knives  ?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Get 
them  out.  Open  the  blades  a  little  way,  till  you  get  them 
where  they  will  not  spring  to.  Very  good.  Hold  them  up, 
backs  downwards.  What  name  do  you  give  to  the  open¬ 
ing  between  the  blade  and  the  handle,  which  we  see  when 
we  look  at  any  one  of  the  knives  sidewise  ?  C.  I  don’t 
know  any  name  for  it.  T.  Would  you  like  to  have  one? 
It  is  an  angle.  How  did  you  make  it  ?  C.  By  opening 
the  blade.  T.  Did  you  lift  the  blade  right  out,  both  ends 
alike  ?  C.  No  sir.  I  lifted  one  end,  the  other  won’t  move. 
T.  Why  not?  C.  There  is  a  pin  through  it.  T.  Very 
well.  Now  put  your  knives  up  and  look  at  the  board 
(pointing  to  the  straight  line).  Suppose  this  line  was  your 
knife  ;  now  if  I  could  move  it  round  one  end,  lifting  this 
right-hand  end  up,  and  leaving  the  other  fixed  as  if  it  had 
a  pin  through  it,  and  stop  as  you  did  in  opening  your 
knives,  I  should  make  just  such  an  opening  or  angle  as  you 
did.  I  will  mark  the  new  place  the  line  is  supposed  to  have 
moved  to.  (Marks  it.)  Do  you  see  the  angle  between 
the  line  in  the  old  and  in  the  new  position  ?  C.  Yes,  sir. 
T.  Did  any  of  you  open  your  knives  wider  than  that? 
C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Then  you  made  a  greater  angle.  Remem¬ 
ber  the  size  of  the  angle  depends  upon  how  wide  the  knife 
is  open,  not  upon  how  long  the  blade  and  handle  are. 


122 


LESSONS. 


(Lengthening  the  sides  of  the  angle  a  good  deal.)  Is  this 
angle  any  larger  than  it  was  before  ?  C.  (Divided  in  opin¬ 
ion.)  T.  Suppose  it  was  a  knife,  is  it  open  any  wider  than 
it  was  before  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  Is  the  angle  larger  ?  C. 
No,  sir.  T.  (Drawing  a  short  line,  making  a  larger  angle 
with  the  original  line.)  Suppose  the  line  had  moved  up  to 
here,  would  the  angle  be  larger  ?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  (Mak¬ 
ing  in  another  place  several  angles  of  different  sizes,  among 
them  an  obtuse  angle  with  very  short  lines,  and  an  acute 
angle  with  very  long  ones.)  Which  is  the  larger  of  these 
two  ?  C.  (Smiling.)  The  one  with  the  short  lines.  T. 
How  is  that,  —  it  is  farther  across  here  (between  the  ends 
of  the  acute  angle)  than  there  (the  obtuse)?  C.  Yes,  sir, 
but  the  knife  is  not  opened  so  wide.  T.  Very  well.  An 
angle,  then,  is  the  inclination  of  one  line  to  another  at  the 
point  where  they  meet,  or  how  much  one  slopes  to  the 
other.  Now,  how  shall  we  measure  an  angle  ?  If  you 
want  to  measure  a  line,  you  find  out  how  many  inches 
long  it  is  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  but  where  can 
we  measure  across  in  the  angle.  (Draws  an  acute 
angle.)  If  I  measure  across  from  this  end  to  that  end 
it  would  be  about  how  much  ?  C.  Three  inches.  T. 
(Lengthening  the  lines.)  Now.  C.  Six  inches.  T.  Is 
the  angle  any  larger.  C.  No,  sir.  T.  Why  ?  C.  The 
knife  is  not  opened  any  wider.  T.  Is  this  a  knife  ? 
C.  No,  sir.  T.  What  would  you  say  of  these  lines,  then  ? 
C.  The  line  has  not  moved  up  any  higher  round  the  fixed 
point.  T.  You  see,  then,  that  we  must  find  some  other 
way  of  measuring  it.  It  will  never  do  to  say  an  angle 
is  three  inches  wide  and  at  the  same  time  six  inches 
wide.  I  will  show  you.  If  I  moved  this  line  right  round, 
keeping  one  end  fixed,  till  it  came  back  where  it  was  before, 
what  figure  would  the  free  or  moving  end  of  it  describe  ? 


ON  LINES  AND  ANGLES. 


123 


(Illustrates  with  a  piece  of  stick  or  chalk.)  C.  A  circle. 
T.  (Draws  a  circle.  Lengthens  the  line,  producing  it  be¬ 
yond  the  circle.)  Now,  if  I  moved  the  line  round  in  the 
same  way  ?  C.  A  larger  circle.  T.  (Draws  the  circle 
and  repeats  the  same  thing  once  more.  Then  draws  a 
line  to  form  an  acute  angle,  cutting  the  three  circles.)  This 
angle  is  the  same  size,  whether  the  lines  extend  to  the  first, 
second,  or  third  circle.  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Now,  we  sup¬ 
pose  every  circle  to  be  divided  into  360  equal  parts. 
(Completes  the  horizontal  diameter.)  How  many  degrees 
in  half  of  it  ?  C.  180.  T.  (Marking  the  quarter  at  top.) 
How  many  in  a  quarter  ?  C.  90.  T.  How  many  in  a 
quarter  of  the  first  circle?  C.  90.  T.  Of  the  second? 
C.  90.  T.  Of  the  third  ?  C.  90.  T.  Are  the  degrees 
the  same  size  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  You  see  that  they  are  of 
different  size  in  each  circle.  But  whatever  size  they  are, 
90°  means  90  equal  parts  out  of  360  equal  parts.  Now, 
this  angle  I  have  drawn  takes  in  half  of  a  quarter  of  the 
circles.  How  much  is  that?  C.  45°.  T.  Is  it  45°  on 
each  of  the  circles?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  What  does  that 
mean  ?  C.  45  equal  parts  out  of  360.  T.  Then  it  does 
not  matter  where  I  draw  the  circle.  I  divide  it  into  360 
equal  parts,  and  then  from  the  centre  draw  lines  to  contain 
as  many  degrees  between  them  as  the  angle  requires.  It 
makes  no  difference  in  what  direction  the  angle  is  drawn, 
only  it  must  have  the  right  number  of  degrees.  Suppose 
you  wished  me  to  draw  an  angle  of  60° :  I  draw  a  straight 
line :  then  a  circle  with  the  end  of  the  line  at  which 
I  wish  to  make  the  angle  at  the  centre  (draws  it).  Then 
I  must  divide  the  circle  into  360  equal  parts.  But  as  that 
would  take  a  1  mg  time,  1  will  manage  it  this  way.  How 
many  degrees  in  a  quarter  of  the  circle  ?  C.  90.  T. 
How  many  in  a  third  of  90?  C.  30.  T.  How  many  in 


124 


LESSONS. 


two  thirds  ?  C.  60.  T.  Just  wliat  I  want.  Two  thirds 
of  this  quarter  will  be  60.  (Marks  off  two  thirds  and 
draws  the  line  to  form  the  angle.)  What  sized  angle  is 
this?  C.  It  is  an  angle  of  60°.  T.  (Draws  an  angle  of 
45°  with  rather  short  lines.)  I  want  to  measure  this  angle, 
what  must  I  do  ?  C.  Draw  a  circle  with  the  point  of  the 
angle  at  the  centre.  T.  (Draws  it,  making  the  circum¬ 
ference  beyond  the  ends  of  the  lines.)  What  am  I  to 
do  now  ?  C.  Make  a  smaller  circle.  T.  But  I  want 
to  measure  on  this  circle.  C.  Make  the  lines  longer. 
T.  Will  not  that  make  the  angle  larger  ?  C.  No,  sir. 
T.  (Lengthens  the  lines.)  How  large  is  the  angle.  C.  Il 
contains  about  half  of  the  quarter  between  the  lines. 
It  must  be  about  45°.  T.  Very  good.  (Drdws  the 
horizontal  diameter,  and  a  line  from  the  centre  to  90°, 
writes  0  at  the  right-hand  end,  90  at  the  top,  and  180  at 
the  left  hand.)  How  far  from  0  to  90  ?  C.  90°.  T. 
From  130  to  90?  C.  90.  T.  Are  these  angles  both  the 
same  size  ?  C.  Yes,  sir,  both  are  angles  of  90°.  T.  If 
a  line  then  makes  an  angle  of  90°  with  another,  what 
angle  will  it  make  on  the  other  side  ?  C.  An  angle  of 
90°.  T.  Wh)'?  C.  Because  the  line  has  moved  just  half¬ 
way.  T.  Two  lines  that  make  an  angle  of  90°  are  said 
to  be  perpendicular  to  each  other.  And  as  this  (pointing 
to  90)  is  the  vertex  or  top,  a  line  perpendicular  to  a  hori¬ 
zontal  one  is  called  also  vertical.  The  angle  of  90°  is 
called  a  right  angle,  and  therefore,  as  the  perpendicular  line 
makes  an  angle  of  90°,  or  a  right  angle  on  each  side,  it  is 
said  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  other  line;  or,  they  are 
said  to  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  T.  Can  a  line 
standing  alone  be  perpendicular?  C.  No,  for  there  is  no 
line  to  make  the  angle  of  90°  with.  T.  Can  it  be  vertical? 
C.  Yes,  because  the  horizontal  line  is  supposed  where  it  is 


ON  LTNES  AND  ANGLES. 


125 


not  drawn.  T.  Is  a  vertical  line  always  perpendicular? 
C.  Yes,  perpendicular  to  a  horizontal  line  drawn  or  sup¬ 
posed.  T.  Is  a  perpendicular  line  always  vertical  ?  C. 
No,  only  when  the  line  to  which  it  is  perpendicular  is 
horizontal  ?  T.  What  are  parallel  lines  ?  C.  Lines  which 
are  everywhere  the  same  distance  apart.  T.  Can  more 
than  two  lines  be  parallel  ?  C.  Yes,  any  number.  T. 
(Illustrates  on  the  board.)  Can  curve  lines  be  parallel  ? 
C.  Just  as  well  as  straight  lines.  T.  (Draws  horizontal, 
perpendicular,  vertical,  oblique  lines,  &c.,  and  asks  their 
names.  He  then  requires  the  pupils  to  draw  the  lines  as 
he  names  them.  When  they  are  perfectly  familiar,  he 
practises  them  in  drawing  an  angle  of  90°,  then  of  45°.) 
1  want  you  to  fix  the  angle  of  45°  in  your  minds  as  a 
standard.  The  main  slope  of  the  writing  in  the  copy¬ 
books  is  50°, —  see  how  much  more  that  is  than  45°  ;  and 
the  connecting  lines  in  the  letters  slope  35°,  —  see  how 
much  that  is  less  than  45°.  (Then  he  should  give  them 
practice  in  drawing  angles  of  50°  and  35°.) 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark,  that  there  is  matter 
enough  here  for  several  lessons.  They  should  be  ungrudg¬ 
ingly  devoted  to  it.  It  will  be  found  to  pay  well  in  the 
end. 


126 


LESSONS. 


LESSON  II. 

ON  MOVEMENTS. 

Teacher.  I  have  already  told  you  how  I  wish  you  to 
Bit,  to  place  your  arms  and  hands,  and  to  hold  your  pens ; 
you  are  now  to  learn  how  to  use  your  pens.  The  first  thing 
of  all  is  to  hold  it  as  lightly  as  you  possibly  can.  If  you 
grasp  it  tightly,  you  will  not  only  make  cramped  letters, 
but  you  will  make  your  hands  and  arms  ache.  Fancy  that 
it  is  a  tube  of  very  thin  glass,  and  that,  if  you  squeeze  it, 
you  will  crush  it  in  pieces.  (Here  go  through  the  drill  for 
commencing  an  exercise,  to  the  point  where  they  take  and 
adjust  their  pens.)  Now  place  your  pens  on  the  top  line, 
in  the  middle  of  the  page,  your  forearm  and  hand  at  right 
angles  to  the  horizontal  lines,  and  in  the  same  line  as  the 
vertical  ones.  When  I  say,  Up,  keep  your  elbows  on  the 
desks  and  raise  your  hands  straight  back,  without  bend¬ 
ing  your  wrists  or  moving  the  pen  in  your  fingers,  till 
your  hands  are  as  far  back  as  your  face.  When  I  say, 
Down,  lower  your  hands  without  bending  your  wrists,  so 
that  the  pens  may  come  in  the  middle  of  the  top  line 
again.  Mind  and  do  it  all  together.  Be  sure  to  keep  the 
muscles  relaxed.  Are  you  ready  ?  Up.  Down.  (Slow¬ 
ly.)  Up.  Down.  (If  the  pupils  are  sitting  with  the  right 
side,  absolutely  and  without  compromise,  turned  to  the 
desk,  the  teacher  can  walk  across  the  front  and  see  every 
movement  in  the  file.)  Up.  Down.  (Correct  those  who 
are  wrong,  hasty,  careless,  or  tardy.  Let  the  motion  be 
moderately  slow.)  Up.  Down.  (Continue  till  it  is  accu- 


ON  MOVEMENTS. 


127 


rately  done  by  all.)  Place  your  pens  now  at  the  left  end 
of  the  same  line.  Which  line  is  it  ?  Class.  The  top  line. 
T.  When  I  say,  Over,  raise  your  hands  and  fore-arms,  rest¬ 
ing  on  the  elbows  as  before,  and  not  bending  your  wrists  or 
moving  the  pens  in  your  fingers,  move  the  pens  across  over 
the  line,  and  put  them  down  on  the  right-hand  end  of  the 
line.  Do  not  lift  your  hands  very  high,  but  do  not  let  the 
pen  touch  the  paper.  Move  at  a  moderate  rate,  —  not 
very  fast  or  very  slow.  When  I  say,  Back,  bring  the  hand 
back  in  the  same  way,  and  put  the  pen  on  the  left  end  as 
before.  Ready.  Over.  Back.  (The  teacher  should  see 
that  all  do  it  with  precision.  Extreme  precision,  the 
whole  class  moving  as  one,  is  the  true  secret  of  keeping 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  and  making  them  feel  interested. 
Call  out  the  very  awkward  ones,  not  telling  them  the 
reason,  to  stand  a  moment  beside  you,  and  see  how  beau¬ 
tiful  the  movement  in  concert  is,  and  how  any  devia¬ 
tion  spoils  it.  Continue  till  the  class  is  perfect.  Correct 
faults  of  position  and  pen-holding  in  the  mean  time.)  Over. 
Back.  Pen  in  the  middle  of  the  page.  How  many  are 
crushing  it  ?  How  many  have  got  it  below  the  knuckle  ? 
Ready.  Up.  Down.  (Three  or  four  or  a  dozen  times.) 
Pen  at  the  left  end.  Ready.  Over.  Back.  (Several 

times.)  Now  just  raise  your  pens  from  the  paper,  and 
move  your  elbows,  fore-arms,  and  hands  a  little  nearer  to 
you,  so  as  to  have  them  opposite  the  middle  of  the  left  half 
of  the  page.  Notice  where  the  middle  of  the  page  is,  and 
when  I  give  the  word  of  command,  move  the  pen  and  place 

it  on  the  middle  of  the  line,  instead  of  on  the  right  end. 

Pens  on  the  left  end.  Ready.  Over.  Back.  (Several 

times.)  If  I  say,  Hand  in  the  middle  of  the  page,  —  I 
want  you  to  move  your  whole  fore-arm,  elbow  too,  to  the 
position  you  had  at  first.  When  I  want  you  as  you  are 


128 


LESSONS 


now,  I  shall  say,  Hand  for  first  half,  —  and  then  the  move¬ 
ment  will  only  be  as  far  as  middle.  Over.  Back.  (Sev¬ 
eral  times.)  Hand  in  the  middle  of  the  page.  Pens 
to  left  end.  Over.  Back.  Pens  in  the  middle.  Up. 
Down.  Hands  for  first  half.  Pens  to  left  end.  Over. 
Back. 

Teach  them  to  move  across  the  right  half  of  the  page, 
having  first  moved  the  fore-arm  and  elbow  opposite  the 
middle  of  it,  in  the  same  way.  Then  take  the  left  col¬ 
umn,  let  the  arm  be  placed  opposite  the  middle  of  it.  Here, 
as  the  space  to  be  crossed  is  so  narrow,  show  them  how 
to  slide  across  from  left  to  right  on  the  corners  of  the 
nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  and  on  the  bed  of 
muscle  in  front  of  the  elbow,  which  we  have  named  the 
Rolling  Rest.  On  this  the  whole  fore-arm  should  move 
to  the  right  with  the  hand,  as  it  travels  on  the  sliding  rest. 
(See  Chap.  V.)  Then  bid  them  raise  the  hand  to  come 
back.  It  may  be  well  to  change  the  first  word,  and  say, 
Slide,  instead  of  Over.  See  that  the  wrists  do  not  touch 
the  desks.  Watch  the  pen-holders,  that  the  hand  is  not 
rolled  over.  Impress  again  and  again  on  their  minds  that 
the  penholder  must  always  be  parallel  to  the  vertical  lines, 
and  in  a  line  with  the  fore-arm.  Tell  them  that  the  only 
reason  of  moving  the  elbow  and  fore-arm  for  the  different 
parts  of  the  copy,  is  to  keep  it  so.  When  they  have  prac¬ 
tised  well  on  the  top  line  of  the  column,  Slide,  Back,  let 
them,  at  the  word  Back,  bring  the  pen  to  the  left  end  of 
the  next  line  in  the  column  ;  this  will  show  them  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  moving  the  book  forward,  which  may  be  done  every 
four  lines,  at  the  word,  “  Move  up  books.*  The  judicious 
teacher  can  occupy  part  of  the  time  with  an  exercise  on 
movement  after  this  model,  and  part  with  the  study  of  the 
principles  and  elements,  so  that  by  the  time  the  above 


ON  MOVEMENTS. 


129 


movements  are  thoroughly  learnt,  and  the  pupils  have  be¬ 
come  somewhat  accustomed  to  their  pens,  they  will  have 
arrived  at  that  stage  in  the  study  of  the  principles  that 
they  are  ready  to  learn  the  finger  movement,  and  to  trace 
preparatory  to  writing.  Do  not  go  on  to  tracing  till  you 
have  got  the  position,  &c.,  and  these  movements  accurate. 
Keep  the  class  to  extreme  precision  of  execution ;  you  will 
find  the  discipline  acquired  invaluable.  Without  discipline 
you  can  never  make  a  whole  class  of  good  writers.  Tlie 
great  hinderances  to  progress  are  inattention  and  slovenly 
execution.  Such  a  drill  as  is  here  proposed  arouses  the 
attention,  develops  the  power  of  fixing  it  steadily  on  a 
given  object,  and  counteracts  till  it  cures  slovenliness.  By 
such  means,  a  fine  class  zeal  also  may  be  called  into 
action,  so  that  each  individual  will  strive  to  distinguish 
himself  as  a  portion  of  the  harmonious  whole. 

When  the  finger  movement  has  been  thoroughly  learnt, 
and  the  pupil  can  execute  letters  handsomely  by  means  of 
it,  at  the  same  time  moving  the  hand  across  equally  on  the 
sliding  rest  and  the  fore-arm  on  the  rolling  rest  to  accom¬ 
pany  it,  giving  the  sliding  and  comital  movements,  it  will 
be  time  to  teach  the  muscular  and  medial  movements ;  that 
is,  the  play  backwards  and  forwards  of  the  fore-arm  on  the 
rolling  rest,  and  the  consequent  movement  of  the  hand, 
enforcing  the  movements  of  the  pen-fingers. 


«* 


l 


130 


LESSONS. 


LESSON  III. 

ON  ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 

Children  will  value  knowledge  when  they  feel  the  need 
of  it.  It  should  be  the  teacher’s  object,  therefore,  to  make 
them  feel  the  need.  Again,  when  the  parts  of  a  compound 
object,  which,  as  a  whole,  is  significant,  are  by  themselves 
non-significant,  children  w.ll  be  more  interested  by  the 
analytical  than  by  the  synthetical  method.  They  know 
the  whole,  and  their  attention  is  naturally  aroused,  when 
they  see  it  separated  and  the  unfamiliar  parts  examined. 
Analysis  should  therefore  precede  synthesis.  On  these 
maxims  we  base  our  instructions. 

Teacher.  I  am  going  to  make  the  small  letter  u  on 
the  board.  (He  draws  a  u  without  the  first  hair  line, 
with  the  first  part  wrong  and  the  last  part  right.  The 
children  smile.)  T.  What  is  the  matter  ?  Pupils.  It 
is  a  bad  one.  T.  Is  it  all  bad  ?  P.  No,  sir.  T.  Which 
part  is  bad  ?  P.  The  first.  (The  teacher  points  to  the 
first  down-stroke.)  T.  You  mean  this  ?  P.  No,  all  the 
first  part.  T.  But  it  is  all  joined  together,  which  is  the 
first  part  ?  P.  (A  little  puzzled.)  Up  to  the  top  of  that 
piece,  —  the  second  piece.  T.  Suppose  I  make  it  again, 
and  do  you  notice  -where  my  hand  stops.  (He  writes  it 
again,  and  they  notice  that  it  stops  when  the  upper  line  is 
reached  and  at  the  end.)  T.  Now,  then,  we  will  call  the 
piece  before  each  stop  one  part.  T.  How  many  are  there  ? 
P.  Two.  T.  How  many  are  alike  ?  P.  Two.  T.  Then, 
instead  of  calling  it  first  part  and  second  part,  would  it  not 


ON  ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 


131 


be  a  good  thing  to  have  a  name  for  it,  so  that,  when  you 
tell  me  what  is  wrong,  I  shall  know  what  you  mean  ?  P. 
Yes,  sir.  T.  We  will  call  it  a  Principle. '  Principle  means 
a  thing  that  begins,  that  is  taken  first.  Now,  this  part  had 
to  be  thought  of  first  before  the  letter  u  was  made  by 
putting  it  over  twice.  We  will  call  it  the  First  Prin¬ 
ciple.  How  many  parts  has  the  u  ?  P.  Two.  T.  How 
many  principles  has  it  ?  P.  One  —  Two.  T.  (Pointing.) 
What  principle  is  this  ?  P.  The  first.  T.  (Pointing  to 
the  other.)  And  this  ?  P.  The  first.  T.  How  many 
principles,  then  ?  P.  One.  T.  Right,  —  one  principle 
repeated.  T.  (Writes  an  m  on  the  board.)  Do  you  see 
the  first  principle  there  ?  P.  No,  sir.  T.  (An  a.) 
Now?  P.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Where?  P.  In  the  a.  T.  ( i,w .) 
Now  ?  P.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Then  it  is  found  in  other  letters  r 
P.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Does  it  change  its  name  ?  P.  No,  sir.  T. 
Then  you  know  what  the  first  principle  is  ?  P.  Yes,  sir. 
T.  (Cleaning  the  board.)  What  is  it  ?  Hands  up,  when 
you  are  ready  to  answer.  (Two  or  three  come  up  rather 
slowly.)  T.  John.  J.  It  is  the  first  part  of  u.  T.  Yes, 
but  suppose  I  don’t  know  how  to  make  u,  how  shall  1 
know  what  the  first  principle  is  ?  '  Mary.  M.  It  is  that 
thing  you  showed  us  on  the  board.  T.  But  suppose,  when 
you  go  home,  your  mother  asks  you  what  you  learned  at 
school,  and  you  tell  her  that  you  learned  about  the  first 
principle,  and  then  she  asks  you  what  it  is,  your  answer 
would  not  make  it  very  clear  to  her,  — would  it  ?  M.  No, 
sir.  (A  hand  is  now  shaking  with  anxiety  for  a  hearing.) 
T.  Well,  Henry.  H.  It  is  a  bent  line.  T.  (Making  a 
bent  line.)  Is  that  it  ?  H.  No,  sir.  T.  Watch  me  very 
carefully  as  I  make  it,  and  perhaps  you  will  be  able  to 
find  out  what  it  is.  (Draws  the  straight  line  on  the  right 
slope.)  What  is  that?  P.  A  straight  line.  T.  (Leav- 


132 


LESSONS. 


ing  a  little  blank  space,  as  in  the  diagram,  Plate  I.,  and 
making  the  turn.)  And  that  ?  P.  A  turn.  T.  (Leav¬ 
ing  another  blank  space,  and  completing  with  the  curved 
line.)  And  that  ?  P.  A  curve.  T.  Now,  then,  what  is 
the  first  principle  ?  P.  It  is  a  straight  line,  a  turn,  and  a 
curve.  T.  (Making  it  wrong  side  up.)  P.  No,  both  ends 
up.  T.  (Draws  it  upright.)  P.  No,  slanting.  T.  (Makes 
the  first  part  shortest.)  P.  No,  both  the  same  height. 
T.  (Drawing  both  the  same  slope.)  P.  No,  the  second 
part  slopes  more  than  the  first.  T.  (Draws  it  right.) 
Well,  there  it  is  at  last.  I  will  not  ask  you  just  now  what 
it  is.  We  will  talk  a  little  more  about  it  first.  How 
many  parts  are  there  in  it  ?  P.  Three.  T.  We  will 
call  these  parts,  which  make  up  the  Principle,  Elements. 
(Draws  m,  n ,  w.)  Is  the  first  part  of  m  like  the  first 
principle  ?  P.  Yes,  only  it  is  turned  over.  T.  Very 
good.  We  use  a  fine  name,  Inverted,  which  is  from  the 
Latin,  and  means  turned  over.  It  is  the  Second  Principle. 
Has  it  the  same  parts  ?  P.  Yes,  curve,  turn,  straight 
line.  T.  Does  the  curve  bend  the  same  way  ?  P.  No, 
sir.  T.  Is  the  bend  of  the  turn  the  same  way  ?  P.  No, 
sir.  T.  Does  the  straight  line  slope  the  same  way  ?  P. 
Yes,  sir.  Now  I  will  draw  a  straight  fine.  (Draws  it 
with  the  right  slope.)  That  is  the  first  element.  I  will 
arrange  the  others,  and  we  will  see  what  we  get.  Whaf 
came  after  the  straight  line  in  the  first  principle  ?  P.  The 
turn.  T.  (Draws  the  lower  turn  of  an  oval,  like  that  in 
tke  diagram,  Plate  I.,  with  both  sides  adapted  to  the 
oral,  and  the  ends  terminating  on  an  oblique  fine.)  What 
next  ?  P.  A  curve.  T.  (Draws  the  right  side  of  the 
oval,  leaving  a  little  blank.)  What  next  ?  P.  That  was 
all  of  the  first  principle.  T.  Well,  how  did  the  second 
principle  begin  ?  P  AVith  a  curve  bending  the  other 


ON  ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 


13b 


way.  T.  (Draws  the  other  side  of  the  oval.)  What 
next  ?  P.  A  turn  opposite  to  the  other.  T.  (Draws 
the  upper  turn  of  the  oval  like  diagram.)  What  did 
we  name  all  these  separate  pieces  ?  P.  Elements.  T. 
What  figure  do  these  four  together  make  ?  P.  0.  T. 
Yes,  an  o  or  oval,  so  called  from  its  being  the  shape  of 
an  egg.  You  see  I  have  drawn  here  a  straight  line 
and  an  oval,  and  these  contain  all  the  elements.  Let 
us  number  them.  (Points  to  straight  line.)  P.  One.  T. 
(Points  to  lower  curve.)  P.  Two  (and  so  on).  T.  How 
many  elements  are  there  ?  P.  Five.  T.  Yes,  and  you 
must  learn  to  know  them  by  their  numbers.  Thus,  (placing 
them  separately  on  the  board  like  the  diagram,  the  sides  like 
those  in  the  turn  of  the  principle,  and  the  ends  terminating 
on  a  horizontal  line,)  E.  1,  E.  2,  &c.  It  is  convenient 
also  to  have  names  for  them ;  thus,  Straight  Line,  Upper 
Curve,  Lower  Curve,  Right  Curve,  Left  Curve.  Do  you 
notice  any  difference  between  this  E.  2,  which  I  have  just 
drawn,  and  the  lower  curve  in  the  oval.  P.  Yes,  sir.  T. 
What  is  it  ?  P.  The  ends  of  it  are  level  in  E.  2,  and  one 
is  higher  than  the  other  in  the  lower  curve.  T.  I  will 
explain  this  to  you,  and  I  want  you  to  pay  very  close  atten¬ 
tion.  We  shall  often  have  to  speak  of  the  height  of  the 
principles  and  letters ;  when  we  do  so,  we  mean  their  ver¬ 
tical  height ;  (draws  a  vertical  line  beside  the  oval,)  these 
four  lines  (see  diagram)  divide  it  into  four  equal  spaces, 
and  we  make  the  ends  of  E.  2  come  up  to  one  of  these 
lines,  that  we  may  see  how  much  of  the  principle  or  letter 
it  takes  up.  How  much  does  it  ?  P.  One  fourth.  1'. 
Very  good,  one  fourth  on  each  side.  Now,  attend  again. 
What  kind  of  line  is  the  left  side  of  the  lower  curve 
joined  to  in  the  oval  ?  P.  To  a  curve.  T.  What  in  the 
principle?  P.  To  a  straight  line.  T.  In  order  to  make 


134 


LESSONS. 


the  lower  curve  of  the  oval  one  fourth,  and  to  adapt  it  t o 
the  straight  line,  we  shorten  the  left  side  and  modify  it, 
that  is,  make  a  change  in  it  to  suit  the  straight  line.  You 
notice  that  the  left  side  of  the  principle  slopes  more  than 
the  left  side  of  the  oval ;  so,  to  adapt  the  left  side  of  the 
lower  curve  of  the  oval  to  this  curve  with  increased  slope, 
we  modify  it- by  sloping  it  a  little  more,  and  we  lengthen  it 
a  little,  so  as  to  make  it  one  fourth  of  the  principle.  The 
actual  turn  in  the  oval  is  retained,  but  both  sides  of  it  are 
modified.  The  turn  in  the  oval  is  the  ideal  form ;  it  gives 
us  the  idea,  we  modify  it  to  suit  the  cases  in  which  it  is 
used.  The  same  modifications  are  made  in  the  upper  turn, 
when  that  is  to  be  adapted  to  a  straight  line  and  a  curve 
with  increased  slope  in  a  principle.  But  I  have  a  word 
or  two  more  to  say  about  this  P.  1.  Does  one  side  slope 
more  than  the  other?  P.  Yes,  sir,  the  right  side.  T.  What 
do  you  suppose  that  is  for  ?  I  will  show  you.  (Draws  a 
Iloman  u  and  n.)  How  many  straight  lines  are  there  in 
each  of  these  letters  ?  P.  Two.  T.  How  many  turns 
are  there  in  each  ?  P.  One.  T.  How  then,  can  you 
tell  one  letter  from  the  other  ?  P.  In  the  u  the  turn  is 
below,  in  the  n  above.  T.  What  do  you  think  the  turn  is 
used  for  ?  P.  To  join  the  two  straight  lines.  T.  Yes. 
Now  notice  the  difference  between  the  Script  or  written 
letter  and  the  Roman  or  printed.  The  straight  lines,  in¬ 
stead  of  being  vertical,  are  sloped  ;  it  is  easier  to  write  them 
so.  (Makes  two  straight  lines  on  the  same  slope,  twice 
over.)  Now  I  want  to  join  these  two  lines.  If  I  do 
so  at  the  bottom,  I  shall  have  u ,  if  at  the  top,  n.  Can  I 
join  the  bottom  of  one  to  the  top  of  the  other  by  a  line  on 
the  same  slope?  P.  No,  sir.  T.  (Draws  the  line  without 
any  turn.)  Will  it  have  more,  or  less  slope  ?  P.  More. 
T.  What  is  this  line  used  for?  P.  To  join  the  other  two. 


ON  ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 


136 


T.  Do  you  know  any  other  word  for  join.  P.  Connect 
T.  Very  good,  we  call  this  line  the  Connecting  Line,  and 
you  now  see  why  it  must  have  more  slope  than  the  other 
or  main  lines.  Is  the  first  part  of  this  u  (the  angular  one 
he  has  just  now  drawn)  like  the  first  principle  ?  P.  No, 
sir  ;  P.  1  has  a  turn.  T.  Which  has  most  beauty,  the  curve 
for  a  turn  or  the  angle  ?  P.  The  curve.  T.  Certainly. 
You  see,  then,  that  the  straight  line  is  the  main  part  of 
this  principle,  and  this  line  of  greater  slope  is  merely  u-ed 
for  connection,  and  the  curve  to  join  the  main  and  the 
connecting  lines  together,  and  add  the  character  of  beauty. 
But  what  kind  of  a  line  is  this  (pointing  to  the  connecting 
line  in  the  angular  n)  ?  P.  A  straight  line.  T.  Which  is 
most  beautiful,  a  straight  line,  or  a  curve  ?  P.  A  curve. 
T.  Which  would  it  be  most  natural  to  continue  the  curved 
side  of  the  turn  with  ?  P.  A  curve.  T.  Therefore  we 
use  a  curve.  The  connecting  lines  are  all  curves.  I  want 
you  particularly  to  remember  the  distinction  between  the 
main  lines,  which  are  the  essential  parts  of  the  letters,  and 
the  turns  and  connecting  lines,  which  are  adjuncts  or  acces¬ 
saries,  because,  as  you  have  seen,  the  main  lines  have  one 
slope,  50°  from  the  base  line,  and  besides  that,  are  all 
written  downwards,  except  in  the  second  part  of  three  let¬ 
ters,  b,  v ,  w,  while  the  connecting  lines  are  all  written  up¬ 
wards  and  have  another  slope,  35°  ;  this  varies,  however, 
when  two  connecting  lines  run  into  one  another  in  the 
combination  of  letters.  One  or  two  more  questions,  and  1 
think  you  will  know  all  about  the  first  principle.  How 
much  of  the  principle  does  E.  2  take  up  on  each  side  ? 
P.  One  fourth.  T.  How  much  E.  1,  then  ?  P.  Three 
fourths.  T.  How  much  E.  3  ?  P.  Three  fourths.  T. 
Which  side  of  the  principle  is  the  higher  ?  P.  They 
botli  end  on  a  horizontal  line.  T.  Since  you  are  too 


LESSONS. 


136 

young  as  yet  to  put  what  you  have  now  learned  in  a 
good  shape,  I  will  sum  it  up  for  you. 

Letters  consist  of  principles. 

A  Principle  is  a  primary  section  or  part  of  a  letter,  and 
consists  of  elements,  which  are  the  secondary  sections  or 
parts  of  a  letter. 

The  first  principle  consists  of  E.  1,  on  the  slope  of  50° 
from  the  base  line,  continued  through  three  fourths  of  the 
height ;  E.  2,  occupying  one  fourth  ;  and  E.  3,  on  the  slope 
of  35°,  occupying  three  fourths,  and  ending  at  the  head 
line. 

In  penmanship,  Analysis  is  the  resolving  or  separating 
compound  forms  into  simple  ones. 

Primary  Analysis  is  the  resolving  or  separating  a  letter 
into  its  principles. 

Secondary  Analysis  is  the  resolving  or  separating  a  let¬ 
ter  into  its  elements. 

Criticism  is  the  examination  of  forms  by  definitions  and 
rules. 

The  teacher  should  next  teach  them  to  apply  the  defini¬ 
tions  in  criticism.  Draw  the  four  lines  as  before.  Write 
the  first  principle  with  E.  1  too  short,  then  E.  3  too  short, 
E.  1  and  2  with  wrong  slopes,  E.  2  too  round  and  too 
sharp,  &c.  The  pupils  will  thus  at  length  acquire  a 
thorough  mental  conception  of  the  given  principle,  and  the 
definition  will  become  to  them  a  living  power,  instead  of  a 
mere  lifeless  form. 


ON  FIRST  COPY. 


13'i 


LESSON  IV. 

ON  FIRST  COPY. 

Teacher.  What  are  you  going  to  do?  Class.  To 
write.  T.  What  on  ?  C.  On  the  copy-book  ?  T.  What 
on  in  copy-book  ?  C.  On  the  ruled  lines.  T.  What  kind 
of  lines  ai’e  they  ?  C.  Straight  lines.  T.  How  many 
different  positions  are  the  ruled  lines  in  ?  C.  Two.  T. 
What  are  they  ?  C.  Horizontal  and  vertical.  T.  Which 
are  you  going  to  write  on?  C.  On  the  horizontal.  T.  Do 
you  notice  any  other  position  of  straight  lines  on  the  page  ? 
C.  Yes,  the  straight  lines  of  the  principles  are  oblique. 
T.  You  may  call  each  collection  of  principles  at  equal  dis¬ 
tances  a  Group.  What  do  the  vertical  lines  divide  the 
page  into  ?  C.  Into  columns.  T.  What  are  the  vertical 
lines  for  ?  C.  To  separate  the  groups.  T.  What  is  the 
relative  position  of  the  horizontal  lines  ?  C.  They  are 
parallel.  T.  What  else  do  you  observe,  as  to  their  relative 
position  ?  C.  Two  are  near  together,  and  then  the  space 
between  is  greater.  T.  What  is  that  for?  C.  That  we 
may  write  between  the  narrow  spaces,  and  make  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  the  right  height.  T.  Will  they  be  of  the  right 
height  if  you  do  not  make  them  touch  both  ?  C.  No,  sir. 
T.  Then  you  must  be  very  careful  to  attend  to  this.  When 
principles  are  joined  together  to  make  letters,  they  are  said 
to  be  connected ;  when  principles  are  joined  together  in¬ 
dependently,  as  in  these  groups,  and  when  letters  are  joined 
together,  they  are  said  to  be  combined.  In  the  copy  at 
the  head  of  the  first  column,  what  principle  is  written  ? 


138 


LESSONS. 


C.  The  first.  T.  Is  it  single  or  combined.  C.  Combined 
T.  Which  is  the  main  stroke  in  the  principle?  C.  The 
first  element.  T.  How  is  the  combination  made  ?  C.  By 
the  turn  and  connecting  line.  T.  What  kind  of  a  join  is 
there  ?  C.  The  end  of  the  connecting  line  touches  the  top 
of  the  next  principle.  T.  How  far,  do  you  think?  C. 
One  fourth  of  the  height.  T.  This  kind  of  join  is  called  a 
connection.  What  is  the  first  element  ?  C.  A  straight 
line.  T.  What  is  a  connection  ?  C.  The  joining  of  a 
connecting  line  to  a  straight  line.  T.  How  long  is  a  con¬ 
nection  ?  C.  One  fourth.  T.  Is  that  a  long  or  a  short 
distance  ?  C.  Short.  T.  Is  it  longer  or  shorter  than  the 
part  of  the  first  element  which  is  not  touched  ?  C.  Shorter. 
T.  How  much  shorter  ?  C.  One  half.  T.  How  is  that  ? 
I  thought  you  said  just  now  it  was  one  fourth.  C.  Yes,  sir, 
one  fourth  of  the  height  of  the  principle,  but  you  asked, 
“  How  much  shorter  than  the  part  of  the  first  element  not 
touched  ?  ”  The  first  element  is  three  fourths  of  the  prin¬ 
ciple,  one  fourth  is  touched,  so  that  twice  as  much  remains 
untouched.  Therefore  the  part  touched  is  one  half  shorter 
than  the  part  untouched.  T.  Very  good,  indeed.  I  am 
glad  you  were  not  caught  there.  What  I  want  to  fix  on 
your  minds  is  the  shortness  of  the  connection,  one  fourth  of 
the  space  ;  so  that  you  may  not  make  it  three  fourths,  as 
many  careless  persons  do.  What  are  we  talking  about? 
C.  The  connection.  T.  How  many  things  did  we  notice 
before  this  ?  C.  The  ruled  lines,  their  position  and  rela¬ 
tive  position,  where  we  are  to  write,  that  the  principles  in 
the  copy  are  combined,  that  we  must  be  sure  and  make 
them  touch  both  the  upper  and  lower  line.  T.  Very  well. 
Wliat  came  next  ?  C.  The  connection.  T.  Is  that  the 
same  as  the  combination?  C.  No,  sir;  the  combination  is 
the  way  independent  principles  or  letters  are  joined  to- 


ON  FIRST  COPY. 


13b 

either ;  the  connection  i3  the  way  a  connecting  line  and  a 
straight  line  are  joined  together.  T.  What  is  the  slope  of 
the  main  lines  in  the  principles  ?  C.  50°.  T.  Of  the  con¬ 
necting  lines  ?  C.  35°.  T.  Which  has  most  slope  ?  C. 
The  connecting  lines.  T.  Then  take  care  and  make  them 
so.  Do  not  run  them  up  parallel  to  the  main  lines.  T. 
Oo  all  the  main  lines  in  the  copy  have  the  same  slope. 
C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  And  all  the  connecting  lines  ?  C.  Yes, 
dir.  T.  Now  I  -want  to  know  where  the  copy  begins  ? 
O'.  Near  the  vertical  line.  T.  Where  does  it  end  ?  C. 
Near  the  next  vertical  line.  T.  Is  that  a  pattern  for  you? 
C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  Which  will  be  the  hardest  to  get  it  right 
at,  the  beginning  or  end  ?  C.  At  the  end.  T.  Why  ? 
C.  Because  we  can  put  the  pen  down  in  the  right  place  to 
begin,  but —  T.  If  you  get  the  principles  too  near  or 
too  far  apart,  they  will  come  out  wrong  at  the  end.  Is 
that  what  you  mean  ?  C.  Yes,  sir.  T.  How  many  times 
is  the  first  principle  written  in  the  copy  ?  C.  Five  times. 
T.  Are  they  all  the  same  distance  apart  ?  C.  Yes,  sir. 
T.  Observe  that  distance  carefully,  and  try  to  make  yours 
the  same.  Now  take  the  position  I  gave  you,  and  your 
pens.  Mind  and  hold  them  properly.  Very  gently,  — 
don’t  squeeze  them.  Now  we  will  trace  the  copy.  By 
that  means  your  fingers  will  get  used  to  the  right  move¬ 
ment,  and  you  will  become  familiar  with  the  form  of  the 
principle.  (The  teacher  can  first  trace  the  copy  on  the 
board  a  few  times.  By  beginning  in  the  wrong  place, 
going  out  of  the  track,  &c.,  &c.,  and  requiring  them  to 
count  for  him  and  criticise,  he  can  teach  them  exactly 
what  the  “  tracing  ”  is  to  be.) 

Count  for  them  at  first,  and  have  the  motion  slow  and 
uniform,  deliberately  down,  round  the  turn  and  up.  Count 
one  for  the  introductory  connecting  line,  two  for  the  down-* 


140 


LESSONS. 


stroke,  one  up,  two  down,  and  so  on.  See  our  method  of 
commencing  an  exercise  in  the  chapter  on  Drill.  While 
they  are  tracing,  correct  position,  pen-holding,  and  move¬ 
ments.  Do  not  be  discouraged.  Remember  your  own  first 
efforts  with  a  pen.  It  is  a  task  of  great  difficulty,  and  re¬ 
quires  surpassing  patience,  to  drill  all  those  little  unskilled 
hands.  Encourage  those  who  have  the  least  natural  ability. 
Praise  those  who  first  do  well.  Assure  the  others  that 
it  is  a  pledge  of  their  success.  Some  are  beginning  to 
triumph  already.  From  the  first,  insist  on  perfect  disci¬ 
pline,  obedience,  and  attention.  A  sure  success  will  attend 
your  labors. 


ON  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


141 


LESSON  V. 

ON  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 

If  the  principles  already  given  have  been  thoroughly 
mastered,  their  varied  combination  in  letters  presents  little 
difficulty.  Still  it  may  be  desirable  that  we  should  present 
a  specimen  of  our  method  of  teaching  the  letters.  Let  it 
be  remembered  that  the  two  great  objects  of  the  teacher 
should  be,  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  all  there  is  in  the  copy, 
and  to  so  impress  it  on  his  mind,  that  he  may  have  a  vivid 
mental  conception  of  the  forms  to  be  written.  He  ought, 
in  fact,  to  see  the  imaginary  forms  on  the  paper  when 
he  writes,  and  then  the  pen  goes  over  them.  If  there  is 
any  reluctance  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to  continue  long 
practising  on  the  principles,  remind  him  that  writing  let¬ 
ters  is  only  making  those  same  despised  principles.  Let 
there  be  much  practice  on  waste  paper,  ruled  like  the 
copy-book.  The  same  number  can  be  cut  down  the  back 
and  through  the  middle  of  the  page  vertically,  and  given 
out  as  needed.  About  four  or  eight  lines  can  be  writteu 
m  the  copy-book  in  one  column,  as  a  result  of  the  day’s 
lesson.  By  this  means,  when  one  book  is  written  through, 
.he  pupil  will  really  have  written  through  five  or  six,  with¬ 
out  knowing  it,  and  the  handsome  appearance  of  his  copy¬ 
book  and  the  marked  improvement  on  page  after  page  will 
render  him  satisfied  and  his  parents  content.  It  is  well 
sometimes  to  be  “  crafty  and  catch  with  guile.”  As  an  old 
writer  says,  “We  must  have  the  eye  of  the  serpent,  only 
take  care  that  it  is  set  in  the  dove’s  head.”  Remember 


142 


LESSONS. 


that,  if  you  yield  to  the  pupil’s  desire  to  hurry  over  the 
principles  and  get  into  the  letters,  you  will  find  him 
equally  anxious  and  pressing  to  get  out  of  the  letters  into 
the  words,  out  of  the  words  into  the  sentences,  out  of  the 
sentences  into  the  book  of  mercantile  terms,  and  then  “  Ho 
for  No.  1 2  and  the  fancy  capitals  !  ”  Interest  the  pupils, 
therefore,  with  all  power,  in  the  principles.  See  who  can 
bring  you  the  handsomest  group  written  out  of  school  ;  let 
them  compare  them  and  judge  themselves  ;  paste  the  hand¬ 
somest  two  or  three  every  day  into  an  old  copy-book  with 
the  pupils’  names  to  them  ;  if  an  Assistant  in  a  school,  re¬ 
quest  the  Principal  to  come  in  and  see  how  they  are  get- 
ing  on ;  show  him  the  selected  specimens,  and  let  him 
express  his  approval.  You  may  thus  awake  an  interest, 
an  excitement,  and  a  healthful  emulation,  which  will  make 
your  class  a  model  one,  and  make  a  good  penman  of  every 
individual.  We  speak  from  what  we  have  seen  again  and 
again.  If  there  is  some  repetition  in  saying  this,  we  care 
not.  It  is  of  such  vital  importance.  And  we  are  meet¬ 
ing  a.  real  difficulty.  It  arises  not  from  the  children  only, 
but  also  from  the  parents.  A  case  in  point  occurred  not 
long  ago.  One  of  our  agents  took  partial  charge  of  an 
advanced  class  in  a  public  school  in  a  city.  The  writing 
was  very  mediocre.  He  put  them  into  No.  3,  and  he  stuck 
to  it.  He  would  not  go  on  from  the  principles  till  the 
whole  class  could  write  nearly  as  well  as  the  copy ;  nor  the 
letters,  till  the  same  end  was  achieved.  One  of  the  pupils 
told  him  afterwards,  that  at  first  her  mother  was  much  dis¬ 
satisfied  and  ridiculed  the  idea.  “  Why,”  said  she,  “  when 
I  began  to  write  at  school,  I  wrote  pothooks  and  hangers, 
and  now  you,  on  this  new-fangled  system,  after  writing 
sentences,  are  put  back  into  them.”  Two  months  later 
the  mother  saw  her  daughter’s  writing.  She  was  no  longer 


ON  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


143 


dissatisfied.  “Well,”  said  she,  “I  must  admit  that  your 
improvemeut  is  wonderful.”  Be  assured,  then,  that  the 
rapid  improvement  will  justify  the  wisdom  of  the  method, 
and  remove  all  feelings  of  discontent  on  the  part  of  both 
pupils  and  parents.  And  by  no  other  method  can  such 
rapid  improvement  be  made. 

Teacher.  Having  now  mastered  the  first  three  prin¬ 
ciples,  we  are  going  to  apply  the  first  principle  in  a  letter. 
1  want  you  to  think  of  each  letter  as  a  little  gentleman  that 
wishes  to  have  his  portrait  taken.  The  principles  are  his 
features,  which  are  learnt  separately,  just  as  an  artist 
learns  to  draw  a  nose,  an  eye,  a  mouth,  before  he  attempts 
a  face.  The  gentleman  is  very  patient,  and  will  sit  to 
have  his  likeness  taken  as  often  and  as  long  as  you  wish ; 
but  his  beautiful  face  will  put  you  to  shame  till  you  get  a 
good  one.  (He  makes  a  group  of  m’s  on  the  board,  like 
the  copy,  page  4  of  No.  2,  or  page  1  of  No.  3,  having 
first  drawn  the  horizontal  and  vertical  lines.)  What  letter 
is  this  ?  Class.  The  letter  u.  T.  We  have  to  fix  our 
attention,  then,  on  the  letter  u.  How  high  is  it  ?  C.  One 
space,  the  same  as  the  distance  the  lines  are  apart.  T, 
How  wide  is  it?  C.  One  space,  the  same  as  the  height. 
T.  Give  me  the  primary  analysis  of  the  letter,  and  I  wiL 
write  it.  C.  The  letter  u  consists  of  P.  1  -f-  P.  1.  (Th* 
teacher  writes  u  =  P.  1  -|-  P.  1.)  T.  Now  I  will  write 
the  letter  according  to  your  analysis.  (He  writes  th* 
u ,  without  the  first  connecting  line.)  Is  that  right? 
C.  It  is  according  to  the  analysis,  but  we  forgot  the  first 
connecting  line.  We  ought  to  have  said  u  consists  of 
E  3,  c.  1.  -j-  P.  1  -f-  P.  1.  (The  teacher  makes  the  ad¬ 
dition.)  T.  Now  the  secondary  analysis.  C.  u  consists 
of  E.  3,  c.  1.  +  E.  1  +  E.  2  -f  E.  3,  c.  1.  -f  E.  1  -f 
F  2  -j-  F  3,  c.  1.  (The  formula  will  appear  on  the  board 


144 


LESSONS. 


as  it  is  in  the  chapter  on  Analysis  of  the  Letters.  The 
teacher  may  also  draw  the  letter,  dividing  it  into  ele¬ 
ments  by  leaving  blanks.)  T.  How  many  elements  are 
there  in  it?  C.  Seven.  T.  What  number  of  similar  ele¬ 
ments  ?  C.  Two  of  E.  1,  two  of  E.  2,  and  three  of  E.  3. 
T.  Which  are  parallel?  C.  The  three  of  E.  3  and  the 
two  of  E.  1.  T.  Which  are  sloped  most?  C.  The  con¬ 
necting  lines.  T.  How  are  they  joined  to  the  main  lines  ? 
C.  By  connections.  T.  How  many  curves,  straight  lines, 
turns,  and  connections  ?  C.  Three  curves,  two  straight 
lines,  two  turns,  and  two  connections.  T.  Which  are  the 
main  lines  or  essential  parts  of  the  letter  ?  C.  The  two 
straight  lines.  T.  Which  are  the  adjuncts  or  accessories  ? 
C.  The  turns  and  curves.  T.  What  are  the  character¬ 
istics  of  m,  or  those  features  which  distinguish  it  from  all 
other  letters?  C.  Two  straight  lines  with  turns  below. 
T.  Is  there  any  other  letter  which  has  two  straight  lines 
as  its  main  lines?  C.  n.  T.  How  do  we  distinguish 
them  ?  C.  The  turns  are  above  in  the  n ,  below  in  the  u. 
(See  chapter  on  Classification  of  Letters.)  T.  How  many 
u’s  are  there  in  this  group  ?  C.  Three.  T.  Do  you  notice 
any  difference  between  this  group  of  u’s  and  the  group  of 
first  principles  you  wrote  ?  C.  The  principles  were  all  the 
same  distance  apart ;  here  the  u’s  are  farther  apart  from 
one  another.  T.  What  do  you  think  that  is  for  ?  C.  To 

distinguish  them  more  easily.  T.  Are  they  so  written  in 

words,  when  they  happen  to  come  together  ?  C.  No,  sir. 
T.  Where  does  the  first  c.  1.  of  the  copy  begin  ?  C.  On  the 
baseline.  T.  Whereabouts  on  the  base  line?  C.  Near 
the  vertical.  T.  Where  does  the  last  c.  1.  of  the  copy 

end  ?  C.  On  the  upper  line  near  the  next  vertical.  T. 

What  is  the  slope  of  the  first  c.  1.  ?  C.  35°.  T.  Of  the 
next  ?  C.  35°.  T.  Of  the  next  ?  C.  More.  T.  How  ia 


ON  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


145 


that  ?  C.  The  next  u  is  farther  off  than  the  two  parts  of  the 
u  are  from  one  another.  T.  Is  the  slope  of  main  strokes 
changed  ?  C.  No,  sir.  T.  You  see,  then,  that  in  the  let¬ 
ters  the  slope  of  the  c.  1.  is  always  the  same ;  but  when  it  is 
used  for  combining,  its  slope  is  modified  to  suit  circumstan¬ 
ces.  T.  To  which  letter  does  the  c.  1.  between  the  two  u’s 
belong  ?  C.  Half  to  the  first,  half  to  the  second.  T.  How 
do  they  unite  ?  C.  By  running  into  one  another.  T.  As 
this  line  has  a  different  slope,  what  name  may  be  given  to 
distinguish  it  ?  C.  Combining  line.  T.  What  is  the  dif¬ 
ference  between  the  connecting  and  the  combining  line  ? 
C.  The  connecting  line  belongs  to  one  letter,  the  combin¬ 
ing  line  to  two  letters ;  the  one  introduces  or  joins  prin¬ 
ciples,  the  other  joins  letters.  T.  Let  us  now  go  through 
the  letter,  naming  the  elements,  connections,  and  turns,  in 
order,  and  the  portion  of  the  space  occupied  by  each. 
C.  E.  3  through  the  whole  space  on  the  slope  of  35°,  E.  1 
three  fourths,  connection  one  fourth,  turn  E.  2  one  fourth, 
E.  3  parallel  to  previous  E.  3  three  fourths,  E.  1  parallel 
to  previous  E.  1  three  fourths,  connection  one  fourth,  turn 
E.  2  like  previous  E.  2  only  the  right  side  is  a  little  more 
sloped,  E.  3  increased  slope  because  the  next  u  is  farther 
off.  T.  Now,  if  you  wish  to  write  well  and  to  make  rapid 
progress,  you  must  think,  think ,  think  of  all  these  particu¬ 
lars,  each  as  you  come  to  it.  In  the  end,  you  will  be  able 
to  write  mechanically,  just  as  you  read  ;  that  is,  without  con¬ 
sciousness  of  the  parts  of  which  the  compound  object,  be  it 
word  or  letter,  is  composed.  From  what  has  been  said, 
you  will  notice  how  very  important  the  first  c.  1.  and  main 
stroke  are,  because  they  set  the  slope  to  the  rest.  We 
will  now  trace  the  copy,  and,  as  you  trace,  think. 

On  the  next  page  will  be  found  a  summary  of  the  topics 
successively  taken  up  in  this  lesson. 

7  i 


146 


LESSONS. 


Topics. 


The  Letter  < 


The  Copy 


1.  Height. 

2.  Width. 

3.  Primary  analysis. 

4.  Secondary  analysis. 

5.  Number  of  elements. 

6.  Number  of  similar  elements. 

7.  Connections. 

8.  Main  lines  and  adjuncts. 

(  Similar. 

(  Distinguishing. 

Number  of  patterns. 


9.  Characteristics 


5.  Slope 


2.  Beginning. 

3.  Ending. 

4.  Combinations. 

1.  Of  main  lines. 

2.  Of  connecting  lines. 

3.  Of  combining  lines. 

Summary.  Recitation  of  the  Elements,  Turns,  and  Con* 
nections  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  and  the  por¬ 
tion  of  the  space  or  spaces  occupied  by  each. 

1.  On  waste  paper. 

2.  On  copy-book. 


Tracing.  Writing 


Criticising 


Position. 

Movement. 

Writing. 


Specimens  op  Primary  and  Secondary  Analysis. 

v  =  E.  3  +  P.  1  +  P.  1 
=  E.  3  +  (f,  E.  1  +  E.  2  +  f,  E.  3) 

+  (f>  E.  1  +  i,  E.  2  +  f,  E.  3). 

Height  =  1  space. 


ON  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


147 


m  =  P.  2  +  P.  2.  +  P.  3 
=  (f,E.4  +  ^,E.5  +  f,^.l) 

+  (f,  E.4  +  *,  E.  5  f,  E.  1) 

+  (f ,  E.  4  +  i,  E.  5  +  E.  1  +  *,  E.  2  +  f ,  E.  3) 

Height  =  1  space. 

a  =  (E.  4  -f  P.  4)  +  P.  1. 

=  i  E.  4  4~  (f ,  E.  4  -f-  E.  2  -j-  3  -}-  E.  1 J 

4“  (h  E-  1  +  E.  2  -f-  f-  E.  3). 

Height  =  1  space. 

b  =  P.  5  +  (P.  1  +  dot  -f  c.  1.) 

=  (4  E.  3  -f-  |)  loop  — |—  E.  1)  — |—  (P.  1  -}-  dot  -|-  c.  1.) 
=  \i,  E.  3  +  f,  (E.  3  +  E.  5  +  E.  4)  +  E If 
-f  (E.  1  +  l,  E.  2  +  f,  E.  3  +  dot  -j-  c.  L). 

Height  of  1st  part  =  4  spaces. 

Height  of  2d  part  =  1  space. 

k  =  P.  5  -f  (loop  +  P.  3) 

=  \b  E-  3  +  f,  (E.  3  +  E.  5  +  E.  4)  +  b  E.  If 

4~  E.  4  loop  — E.  1  -j-  j,  E.  2  j,  E.  3). 

Height  of  1st  part  =  4  spaces. 

Height  of  2d  part  =  1^  spaces. 

p  =  (E.  3  +  E.  1)  +  P.  3 
=  (3,  E.  3  +  5,  E.  1) 

-f-  f »  E.  4  -|-  b  E.  5  4~  b  E.  1  -j-  ¥’  2  •-(-  f >  E.  3). 

Length  of  1st  part  =  5  spaces. 

Height  of  2d  part  =  1  space. 

1  =  (E.  4  -f  P.  4)  -f  (E.  1  4-  E.  2  -j-  E.  1  +  E.  4) 

=  \  1 ,  E.  4  4-  ( E.  4  -p  i ,  E.  2  4-  i ,  E.  3  4-  b  E.  1 )  i 
-j-  (3 j,  E.  1  4~  E.  2  4~  2 j,  E.  1  4~  I?  E.  41. 

Height  of  1st  part  =  1  space. 

Length  of  2d  part  =  3£  spaces 


148 


LESSONS. 


y  =  P.  3  -f  P.  6 

=  i ,  E.  4  4-  i,  E.  5  +  i,  E.  1  +  *,  E.  2  +  f ,  E.  3) 
+  Kl+b(K3  +  E.2  +  E.  4)  +  £,  E.  4|. 

Height  of  1st  part  =  1  space. 

Length  of  2d  part  =  4  spaces. 

Drill  on  the  Capitals. 

With  book  No.  3,  begin  to  practise  frequently  Ps.  7,  8, 
9,  on  waste  paper,  between  two  lines ,  using  these  steps  :  — 
P.  7.  (1.)  Hair  line  and  dot;  (2.)  The  variations  in  Plate 
III.  —  P.  8.  (1.)  Simple  oval,  hair  line,  closed  at  top ; 
(2.)  Left  curve  shaded ;  (3.)  Begin  as  (2),  but  at  the  top 
run  down  inside  (see  P.  8,  p.  77,  and  0,  p.  79.  1)  ;  (4.) 
Inner  curve  shaded.  —  P.  9.  (1.)  Simple  oval,  hair  line,  up 
left  side  first,  begin  at  the  bottom  and  close  there  ;  (2.) 
Right  curve  shaded;  (3.)  Write  (1),  beginning  one  third 
from  bottom  line,  oval  two  thirds ;  (4.)  Right  curve 
shaded ;  (5.)  Begin  as  (4),  at  the  bottom,  run  up  inside 
one  third  the  width  from  the  left  and  below  the  upper 
curve,  cross  the  right  curve,  descend  at  same  distance  from 
it  to  the  middle,  then  end  with  straight  line  on  main  slope ; 
(6.)  Change  shade  to  the  straight  line. 

Let  these  be  written  in  concert,  by  count  at  first,  after¬ 
wards  by  six  at  a  time.  Criticise  each  fresh  batch,  and 
insist  upon  the  immediate  correction  of  errors  and  upon 
constant  improvement.  At  a  later  period,  see  how  many  of 
each  different  kind  they  can  make  handsomely  in  a  minute, 
taking  one  kind  at  a  time.  They  ought  to  make  about 
seventy  or  eighty  of  Ps.  8  and  9,  —  more  of  P.  7. 


ON  A  CAPITAL. 


149 


LESSON  VI. 

ON  A  CAPITAL. 


Topics. 


1.  The  Principles  | 

2.  Proportions  | 

3.  Slope 


{ 


1.  Conformity  to. 

2.  Deviation  from. 

1.  On  the  slope. 

2.  On  the  short  diameter,  or  across. 

1.  General,  of  the  whole. 

2.  Special,  of  the  parts. 


4.  Shading. 

5.  Description  of  the  letter. 

Especial  attention  must  be  given  to  the  following  points. 
1.  The  rounding  of  the  oval.  2.  Its  proportions.  3.  The 
similarity  of  its  curves.  4.  The  lateral  curves  being  all  on 
the  main  slope.  5.  The  elegance  of  the  stem.  6.  The 
formation  of  its  curves.  7.  The  turn  and  dot.  8.  Its 
slope.  9.  Its  shade.  10.  The  shape  of  the  other  parts  of 
the  letters.  11.  Their  proportions.  12.  The  combining 
of  the  muscular  movement  with  that  of  the  fingers  in  their 


ext-cution. 

T.  We  are  now  going  to  write  the  letter  B.  It  consists 
of  two  parts, — the  Stem  and  the  Cap  and  Lobes.  What 
is  the  stem  ?  C.  The  seventh  principle  or  double  curve  ter¬ 
minated  with  a  turn  and  dot.  T.  Is  it  the  pure  double 
curve  ?  C.  Yes.  T.  What  did  I  mean  by  that  question  ? 
C.  Whether  the  upper  and  lower  parts  had  the  same 
curve.  T  Is  it  much  curved  ?  C.  No.  T.  What  is  the 


150 


LESSONS. 


turn  ?  C.  The  turn  of  the  lower  oval.  T.  What  of  tha 
dot  ?  C.  Its  he.ght  is  half  a  space,  and  it  is  made  on  the 
main  slope,  Rule  2.  T.  Is  it  made  on  the  curve  of  the 
oval  ?  C.  No,  it  cuts  into  the  oval,  because  of  its  slope.  T. 
What  is  the  front  or  head  of  the  B?  C.  The  inverted 
oval.  T.  What  is  the  rule  for  it?  C.  Rule  5.  Its  height 
is  two  thirds.  T.  How  many  right  and  left  curves  in  it? 
C.  Three.  T.  What  is  their  slope  ?  C.  They  all  have 
the  main  slope.  T.  How  many  in  the  left  side  of  the  let¬ 
ter  ?  C.  Three.  T.  And  their  slope  ?  C.  All  have  the 
main  slope.  T.  Which  is  the  highest  part  of  the  cap  ?  C. 
The  middle  point  between  the  section  of  the  oval  and  the 
stem.  T.  Describe  the  cap  after  the  highest  point.  C. 
It  descends,  crosses  the  stem  at  right  angles,  and  forms  a 
lobe  with  the  right  curve,  which  passes  under  to  form  the 
horizontal  separating  loop  at  one  third  from  the  top,  and 
terminates  with  the  inverted  oval,  half  the  height,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Rule  5.  T.  How  long  is  the  upper  lobe  ?  C.  One 
third.  T.  How  long  in  P  ?  C.  One  half.  T.  Through 
what  would  a  line  drawn,  touching  the  second  curve  of  the 
front  oval,  pass  ?  C.  Through  the  dot.  T.  And  a  line 
touching  the  upper  lobe  ?  C.  Through  the  middle  of  the 
inverted  oval  which  forms  the  lower  lobe.  T.  (Drawing 
the  short  diameter  of  the  first  oval  through  to  the  stem.) 
What  equal  spaces?  C.  Between  the  left  sides  of  the 
oval,  one ;  in  the  next  section  of  the  oval,  two ;  between 
the  oval  and  the  stem,  one.  Four  in  all.  T.  In  the  same 
way  in  the  lower  lobe  ?  C.  Three,  —  one  between  the 
stem  and  the  oval,  two  in  the  oval.  T.  Supposing  the 
first  oval  completed,  what  is  its  width  ?  C.  Half  the 
length.  T.  Which  is  the  highest  part  of  the  letter  ?  C. 
The  upper  curve  of  the  first  part  of  the  oval.  T.  What 
shades  are  there  ?  C.  There  is  a  shade  on  the  right  curve 


ON  A  CAPITAL. 


151 


in  each  of  the  two  ovals.  T.  Where  is  it  heaviest  ?  C. 
In  the  middle  of  the  curve.  T.  Do  you  see  the  good  taste 
of  thus  placing  it  ?  C.  Yes,  sir ;  the  upper  balances  the 
lower,  and  there  are  two  light  curves  before  each.  T. 
Describe  the  letter  as  it  should  exist  in  your  mind  when 
you  write  it.  C.  The  capital-stem  with  similar  and  equal 
curves  on  the  main  slope,  turned  on  the  lower  turn  of  the 
oval  from  which  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  is  derived  and 
finished  with  a  dot  or  bulb,  half  a  space  high  and  on  the 
main  slope.  The  inverted  oval,  two  thirds  high  and  shaded 
on  the  right  side,  making  with  its  curves,  diameter,  and  the 
stem,  four  equal  spaces  measured  on  the  short  diameter ; 
the  curve  ascends  till  the  highest  point  of  the  cap  is 
reached,  half-way  between  the  section  of  the  oval  and  the 
stem  ;  then  descends,  crossing  the  stem  at  right  angles,  and 
forms  the  upper  lobe,  one  third  high,  passes  under  to  form 
the  small  horizontal  separating  loop,  reissues  to  descend 
and  form  the  lower  lobe,  which  consists  of  the  inverted 
oval,  half  the  height,  and  shaded  on  the  right  side,  making 
with  its  curves,  diameter,  and  the  stem  three  equal  spaces, 
measured  on  the  short  diameter.  T.  Tell  me  how  you 
shall  write  the  first  oval  ?  C.  I  must  measure  with  my 
eye  two  thirds  of  the  height  and  the  four  spaces,  taking 
care  that  the  slope  through  the  point  between  the  first  and 
second  and  the  dot  of  the  stem  is  the  main  slope,  then,  left 
curve  ascending,  over,  right  curve  shaded  beginning  below 
the  crossing,  under,  left  curve  similar  to  the  first,  cross,  and 
ascend  to  highest  point  of  the  cap.  (Reader.  —  What  a 
long  rigmarole  !  Teacher.  —  My  good  friend,  we  pro 
fess  to  teach  writing,  and  not  merely  to  let  it  grow.)  T. 
You  must  think  of  all  these  points  as  you  first  trace  and 
then  write  the  letter.  Write  slowly  at  first,  with  the  fin¬ 
ger  movement,  till  your  eye  and  hand  become  familiar 


152 


LESSONS. 


with  the  form.  Then  make  use  of  the  additional  muscular 
movement,  and  write  it  freely,  boldly,  and  rapidly.  Re¬ 
member  that  the  inverted  oval  occurs  as  a  commencement 
in  seven  letters,  so  that  in  learning  to  make  it  perfectly 
here,  you  learn  it  for  all  of  them. 


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